ANISE
(an’us)
|
ANISE
(an’us)
(Pimpinella anisum L.) ++
SUMMARY AND PHARMACEUTICAL COMMENT
The chemistry of
aniseed is well studied and documented pharmacological activities support some
of the herbal uses. Aniseed is used extensively as a spice and is widely used
in conventional pharmaceuticals for its carminative, expectorant and flavouring
properties. Aniseed contains anethole and estragole which are structurally
related to safrole, a known hepatotoxin and carcinogen. Although both anethole
and estragole have been shown to cause hepatotoxicity in rodents, aniseed is
not thought to represent a risk to human health when it is consumed in amounts
normally encountered in foods. Anethole was reaffirmed as GRAS (Generally Regarded
As Safe) in 1997 on the basis of the recognised metabolic detoxication of trans-anethole in humans at low levels of exposure (1 mg/kg body
weight).(1) For medicinal use, it is recommended that treatment should not be continued
for extended periods (Barnes, J et al., 2007).
GENERAL COMMENTS
(Kraft, K and Hobbs, Ch. 2004)
The
essential oil extracted from the mature and dried fruit is used in medicine.
COMMON NAMES
(Ross, I. A. 2004)
Adas Indonesia
Anis vert France
Anis vert Tunisia
Ani sa India
Anise seed Guyana
Anise seed Japan
Anise seed Trinidad
Anise seed West
Indies
Anise seed Yugoslavia
Anise Argentina
Anise Colombia
Anise Guatemala
Anise Mexico
Anise Peru
Anise USA
Ani soon Arabic
countri es
Annesella Ita ly
Bad ian Afghanistan
Bad ian India
Badishep India
Boucage anis North
Africa
Habbat hlawa Morocco
Kuppi India
Mitha-jira India
Muhuri India
Petit anise North
Africa
Razianaj Arabic
countries
Saunf Star anise
India
Saunf India
Sawonf India
Shombu India
Somp India
Sop Nepal
Sop India
Sopu India
Star ani se USA
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION (Ross, I. A. 2004)
An annual of the UMBELLIFERAE
family. It grows to 30- 60 em high with ternately pinnate leaves. The flowers
are small, white, and borne in compound umbels. The fruit is ovoid or pyriform,
laterally compressed, 3-5 mm in length and 2-3 mm wide, grayish green to grayish
brown with a peculiar sweet smell. The mericarp is broadly ovoid, 5- ridged
with short hairs and numerous vittae.
DESCRIPTION (Medical Economics Company, 2000)
Medicinal Parts: The medicinal parts are the dried
rhizome, the dried roots and the fresh roots collected in May.
Flower and Fruit: The white flowers are in compound
5- to I5:rayed umbels. There is no involucre or epicalyx. The flowers are
small. The petals are uneven with curved lobes. The style is longer than the
ovary during the flowering season. The fruit is dark brown to black,
oblong-ovate, compressed at the sides, 2 to 3.5 mm long, heavily grooved and
has no beak.
Leaves, Stem and Root: The 50 to 100 cm high plant is a perennial.
During the flowering season, it develops lateral rosettes of leaves for the following
year. These are usually glabrous, occasionally finely downy to
short-bristly. The root is fusiform or
carrot-shaped. The root is 10 to 20 cm long and I to 1.5 cm thick, gray-yellow
and somewhat ringed. The stem is erect, angular, grooved, hollow, glabrous, somewhat
leafy and branched from the ground up. The leaves are simple pinnate and
glossy. The leaflets of the lower leaves are petiolate. They are ovate or oblong-indented
or serrate acuminate.
SPECIES (FAMILY)
(Barnes, J et al., 2007)
Pimpinella
anisum L. (Apiaceae/Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS
Anise,
Anisi Fructus, Anisum, Anisum officinarum Moench., (Barnes, J et al., 2007)
Anisum
vulgare Gaertn. Aniseed, sweet cumin (Linda, S-R. 2010)
PART(S) USED
Fruit (Barnes,
J et al., 2007) (ripe and dried)
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION
This native of the eastern Mediterranean
region is widely cultivated in southern and central Europe, USSR, North Africa
and to a lesser extent Mexico and South America. (Ross, I. A. 2004)
The plant grows all over Europe
with the exception of Scandinavia and the southern Balkans. It has been
introduced to North America.
Anise is an annual grown
throughout the world (Linda, S-R. 2010)
PHARMACOPOEIAL AND OTHER MONOGRAPHS
(Barnes, J et al., 2007)
BHP
1996(G9)
BP
2007(G84)
Complete
German Commission E(G3)
ESCOP
1997(G52)
Martindale
35th edition(G85)
Ph Eur
2007(G81)
LEGAL CATEGORY (LICENSED PRODUCTS)
(Barnes, J et al.,
2007)
GSL(G37)
PRODUCT AVAILABILITY
(Linda, S-R. 2010)
Essential
oil, toothpaste, whole herb
CONSTITUENTS
(Barnes, J et al.,
2007)
The following is
compiled from several sources, including General References G2 and G52.
Coumarins
Scopoletin, umbelliferone, umbelliprenine; bergapten (furanocoumarin).
Flavonoids Flavonol
(quercetin) and flavone (apigenin, luteolin) glycosides, e.g.
quercetin-3-glucuronide, rutin, luteolin-7-glucoside, apigenin-7-glucoside;
isoorientin and isovitexin (C-glucosides).
Volatile oils 2–6%.
Major components are trans-anethole (80–95%), with smaller amounts of estragole
(methyl chavicol),(G52) anise ketone (p-methoxyphenylacetone) and
b-caryophyllene.
Minor components
include anisaldehyde and anisic acid (oxidation products of anethole),
linalool, limonene, a-pinene, pseudoisoeugenol-2-methyl butyrate, acetaldehyde,
p-cresol, cresol, hydroquinone, b-farnesene, a-, b- and g-himachalene,
bisabolene, d-elemene, ar-curcumene and myristicin.(2)
Other constituents
Carbohydrate (50%), lipids 16% (saturated and unsaturated), b-amyrin (triterpene),
stigmasterol (phytosterol) and its palmitate and stearate salts.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS (Ross, I. A. 2004)
(ppm unless otherwise indicated)
Abscisic acid: Fr
0.224PAo169
Anethole, cis: Fr
EOPA0147
Anethole, trans:
Lf EOPA0179, Fr EOPA0147
Anethole: Fr EO
80-90%PA01 01 , SdPA0134, ShootsPA0153
Anisaldehyde:
FrPAolso, EOPA0121
Anisic acid, para:
Fr EOPA0147
Anisic acid:
EOPA0163
Anisketone: Sd
EOPA0126
Anisyl alcohol: Fr
EOPA0147
Anisyl ketone: Fr
EOPA0147
Benzene, 2 -hydroxy-5-methoxy-trans-propenyl
2-methyl-butyrate: Fr EOPA0128
Benzoic acid,
4-beta-d-glucopyranosyl-oxy: Fr 0.90%PA0186
Benzoquinone, 1,4:
Rt, Lf, Callusti ssuePAong
Bergamotene,
alpha, trans: Sd EOPA0168
Bergapten: Callus
tiss 0.5%PA0135 , FrPAOlss
Bisabolene, beta:
EO, Callus tissPA0148
Caffeic acid: Fr
2060PAOl?S
Camphene: EOPA0163
Camphor: Fr
EOPA0147
Carvone, dihydro
acetate: Fr EOPA0147
Carvone: Sd
EOPA0168, Fr EOPA0147
Caryophyllene,
beta: Fr EOPAOl47
Chamazu lene:
EOPA0163
Choline, acetyl:
Sd 64 nmol/gmPA0154
Choline: Sd 3950
nmol/gmPA0154
Cinnamaldehyde: Sd
EOPA0168
Cinnamyl alcohol:
Sd EOPA0168
Coumaric acid,
para: Fr 737PAD175
Cynaroside: Fr 0.128%PA
0170
Elemene, beta: Sd
EOPA0168
Essential oil (Pimpinella
anisum): CalltissPA0204, Sd 0.61%PA0116, Fr 2.4- 3_2%PA0101
Estragole: EO
81.5% PAOl64, Fr EO 4.0% PA0147
Eugenol, (2-methyl-butyrate),
pseudo-isoepoxy: ShootPA 0153
Eugenol, (2-methyl-butyrate),
pseudo-iso:ShootPA0153
Eugenol,
(2-methyl-butyryl ester), isopseudo epoxy: Callus EOPA0148
Eugenol, (2-methyl-butyryl
ester), isopseudo: FrPA01so, Callus EOPA0148
Eugenol, (2-methyl-butyryl
ester), isopseudo epoxy: EOPA 0148
Eugenol, (2-methyl-butyryl
ester), isopseudo:EOPA0148
Eugenol, iso pseudo 2-mehtyl-butyrate:
FrEOPA0151
Eugenol, iso pseudo
2-methyl-butyrate epoxide: Fr EOPA0151
Eugenol, iso pseudo epoxy
2-methyl-butyrate: SdPA01S2
Eugenol: Fr EOPA 0147
Fenchone: Fr EOPA0147
Foeniculin: FrPA0150
Geijerene, pre: Rt EO 16.4%PA0182
Glucinol: PIPAom
lmperatorin: LfPA0131
Limonene: Fr EOPA0147
Linalool: Fr EOPA0147
Luteolin: Fr 0.125%PA0170
Luteal i n-7 -0-beta-d-xyloside:
Fr 0.158%PA0170
Myristicin: SdPA 0208 , Callus
EOPAD 148
Oleic acid: Sd 21.7%PA0184
Orienti n, iso: FrPA0178
Petroselinic acid: Sd 48.9%PA0184
Phellandrene: Sd EOPA0116
Phenyi-(DL)-2-methyl-butanoate 4-methoxy-2-(prop-trans-1-enyl):
Aer 1.5%PA0145
phenyl,
4-methoxy-2-(trans-1-propenyl) 2-
methyl-butyrate: SdPA0152
Pinene, alpha: EOPA0163
Plastohydroquinone 9: Rt, Lf,
Callus tissPA0119
Plastoquinone: Rt, Lf, Callus
tissPAD 11 9
Psoralen, 5-methoxy: FrPA0139
Purine, amino 6-benzyl: Callus
tissPAD 149
Querceti
n-3-0-beta-d-glucuronide: FrPA01 7B
Quercitrin, iso: LfPA0207
Rutin: FrPA0178
Safrole: EOPA 0121
Scoparone: LfPAom
Scopoletin: LfPAom, Callus tiss
2.5%PAOBS
Seselin: LfPA 0131
Sitosterol, beta: Callus tissPA
0120
Stigmasterol: Callus tissPAD 12D
Stilbene 4,4-dimethoxy: Fr
EOPA0156
Terpinene, alpha: EOPA0163
Terpineol: EOPA0121
Thujene, alpha: EOPA 0163
Thymol: EOPA0163
Tocopherol, alpha: Callus tiss,
Rt, LfPA0119
Tocoquinone, alpha: Callus tiss,
Rt, LfPA011 9
Umbelliferone: Callus tiss
0.5%PA0135
Vitamin K1: Callus tiss, Rt,
LfPA0119
Vitexin, iso: FrPA0178
Xanthotoxin: FrPA0139,PA0158
HERBAL USE
HERBAL
USE
Aniseed is stated
to possess expectorant, antispasmodic, carminative and parasiticide properties.
Traditionally, it has been used for bronchial catarrh, pertussis, spasmodic
cough, flatulent colic; topically for pediculosis and scabies; its most
specific use is for bronchitis, tracheitis with persistent cough, and as an
aromatic adjuvant to prevent colic following the use of cathartics.(G2, G7,
G64)
Modern use of
aniseed is mainly for the treatment of dyspeptic complaints and catarrh of the
upper respiratory tract.(G41,G52, G75)
Aniseed has been
used as an oestrogenic agent.(3) It has been reputed to increase milk secretion,
promote menstruation, facilitate birth, alleviate symptoms of the male
climacteric and increase libido.(3) (Barnes,
J et al., 2007)
Anise is used
internally as an expectorant to treat bronchiectasis, bronchitis, emphysema, and
whooping cough. It is also used internally as an antibacterial, an antispasmodic,
an abortifacient (large quantities), a diaphoretic, a diuretic, a stimulant,
and a tonic. Anise can be used by steam inhalation with tea tree, pine, and
chamomile to treat acute and chronic sinusitis. It is used externally to treat catarrhs
of the respiratory system (asthma, bronchitis). Other reported uses include treatment
for cancer, cholera, colic, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, epilepsy, indigestion,
insomnia, lice, migraine, nausea, neuralgia, rash, scabies, and to improve
breastfeeding (Duke, 2003). Anise is used as a fragrance and fl avoring in food.
It may be given to children to reduce gas, colic, and respiratory symptoms (Romm,
2003).
FOOD USE (Barnes, J et
al., 2007)
Aniseed is used
extensively as a spice and is listed by the Council of Europe as a natural
source of food flavouring (category N2). This category allows small quantities
of aniseed to be added to foodstuffs, with a possible limitation of an active
principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product.(G16) Previously, aniseed
has been listed as GRAS.(1, G41)
TRADITIONAL
MEDICINAL USES (Ross, I. A. 2004)
Afghanistan. Hot water extract of the fruit, together
with ginger, is taken orally during the menstrual cycle to induce
pregnancyPA0202•
Arabic countries. Hot water extract of the fruit is
taken orally as an emmenagogue in Unani medicinerA0183 .
Argentina. Decoction of the dried fruit is taken
orally for diarrhea and respiratory and urinary tract infectionsrAo137. Hot
water extract of the seed is taken orally to facilitate childbirth and
expulsion of the placentarAo109.
Colombia. Hot water extract of the fruit is
taken orally as a galactagoguefA0101.
Egypt. The essential oil is taken orally
as an aphrodisiacrA0107. The essential oil of the fruit is taken orally as a
galactagoguefA0206.
Europe. Hot water extract of the dried
aerial parts is used to induce milk letdown and as an aphrodisiacPA0174. Hot
water extract of the fruit is taken orally by pregnant women to produce abortionrAo171
. The essential oil is taken orally as a galactagogueA0206.
France. Hot water extract of the fruit is
taken orally as a galactagogue, expectorant and antispasmodid'A0173 .
Guatemala. Decoction of the seed is taken orally
for stomach pains and feverPA0141 .
Italy. Ethanol/water (1: 1) extract of
the seed is taken orally to treat spasms in the intestinesrAozoo. Infusion of
the fruit is taken orally as a digestive and antiasthmaticrAow.
Malaysia. Hot water extract of the fruit is
taken orally by the mother immediately after giving birthrA0115 .
Mexico. Decoction of the dried seed, in combination
with Allium cepa and Allium sativum, is given to the
newborn childPA0187. Hot water extract of the dried fruit is taken orally as an
abortifacientrA0129.
Morocco. The fruit is taken orally as an aphrodisiac,
a poison antidote, for digestive difficulties and as an aperitive for aerophagieAoJ43.
North Africa. Hot water extract of the fruit is
taken orally as a galactagoguerAozoJ.
Peru. Hot water extract of the dried
fruit is taken orally as a carminative, tonic and stimulanrPA0199.
Trinidad. The fruit, together with mauby bark
and nutmeg mace, is boiled, sweetened with sugar and taken orally as an aphrodisiacrAozos.
Tunisia. Hot water extract of the dried
fruit is taken orally for stomach pain, heartburn and as a galactagoguerAoJss.
USA. Fluid extract of the fruit is
taken orally to increase the secretion of milkPA0111 . Hot water extract of the
dried fruit is taken orally for nausea, flatulence, colic in infants, and as a
carminative and stimulant PA0209. Hot water extract of the seed is taken orally
for asthma and as a carminativerA0146. Infusion of the dried seed is taken
orally for coughsrAots1. The dried seeds are taken orally for gastritis,
flatulence, abdominal cramping, gastrointestinal disorders and dyspepsiarAoJs7.
ACTIVITIES (Duke et al, 2002)
Abortifacient (f;
CAN; CRC); Allergenic (1; CRC); Analgesic (1; CRC; HH2); Antibacterial (2; HH2;
KOM; PHR; PH2; PIP); Anticonvulsant (1; CAN); Antiseptic (2; KOM; PHR; PIP);
Antispasmodic (2; CAN; HH2; KOM; PHR; PH2); Antiviral (1; HH2; PH2); Aperitif
(f; CRC); Aphrodisiac (f; HHB); Carminative (1; CAN; HHB; JFM); Collyrium (f;
CRC); Dentifrice (f; CRC); Diaphoretic (f; CRC); Digestive (f; PH2);
Emmenagogue (1; CAN; HHB); Estrogenic (1; CAN; HHB; HH2; PH2); Expectorant (2;
CAN; HH2; KOM; PHR; PH2); Fungicide (1; CRC); GABA-genic (1; CAN); Hepatotonic
(1; CRC); Hepatotoxic (f; CAN); Insecticide (1; APA; CAN; CRC); Insectifuge (1;
PH2); Lactagogue (1; CAN; CRC; HHB; JFM); Laxative (f; DEM); Libidogenic (f;
CAN); Litholytic (f; CRC); Paraciticide (1; CAN; FNF); Pectoral (f; CRC);
Pediculicide (1; APA); Secretolytic (1; CAN); Sedative (f; CRC); Stimulant (f;
CRC); Stomachic (f; CRC; HHB); Sympathomimetic (1; CAN); Tonic (f;CRC).
ACTIONS
(Linda, S-R. 2010)
Antibacterial Action
One
study identifi es the inhibition of gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. Another
study shows the inhibition of the mycotoxin of Aspergillus.
OTHER ACTIONS
Anise
is used for a variety of purposes. It has been used topically (bergapten, one of
the chemical components, has been isolated) in conjunction with ultraviolet light
to treat psoriasis (Newell et al, 1996). Anise oil mixed with sassafras oil is used
as an insect repellent (Chandler et al, 1984), and anise oil may be applied topically
to treat lice and scabies (Chevallier, 1996). In addition, one study has shown
that the essential oil of Pimpinella
anisum exerts an anticonvulsant effect
in mice. In this study the essential oil not only suppressed induced tonic
convulsions, but it also increased the threshold of clonic convulsions
(Pourgholami et al, 1999). Anise also acts as a cat e chol amine similar to adrenalin
and possesses estrogenic properties (Albert-Puleo, 1980). One study has shown
the ability of this herb to block infl ammation, carcinogenesis, possibly due
to tumor necrosis factor–mediated signaling (Chainy et al, 2000). Another study
(Boskabady et al, 2001) has identifi ed the relaxant effects of Pimpinella anisum, including
bronchodilation.
A
newer study (Kosalec et al, 2005) used the essential oil and extract from anise
to study the antifungal activity. There were signifi cant differences in antifungal
activity between the essential oil and fl uid extract. The essential oils’ antifungal
activity was much stronger than the extract. Anise suspension has identifi ed a
protective quality against gastric-induced ulcers in rats (Al Mofl eh et al, 2007).
The volatile oil in anise, anethole, may be responsible for the estrogenic action
(Newell et al, 1996).
PHARMACOLOGY
PHARMACOLOGY (Kraft,
K and Hobbs, Ch. 2004)
–Herb: Aniseed
(Anisi fructus).
–Important constituents:Essential
oil (2–6 %) consisting mainly of trans-anethole
(ca. 94 %) as well as apigenin-7-O-glucoside
and luteolin-7-O-glucoside.
–Pharmacological properties:
Aniseed has expectorant, weakly spasmolytic and antibacterial action. Aniseed
oil has antibacterial and antiviral activity.
PHARMACOLOGICAL
ACTIONS (Barnes,
J et al., 2007)
Pharmacological Actions
The pharmacological
effects of aniseed are largely due to the presence of anethole, which is
structurally related to the catecholamines adrenaline, noradrenaline and
dopamine. Anethole dimers closely resemble the oestrogenic agents stilbene and diethylstilbestrol.(3)
IN VITRO AND ANIMAL STUDIES
Antimicrobial,
antifungal and insecticidal activities The volatile oil has antibacterial,
antifungal and insecticidal activities.( G41,G52) Anethole, anisaldehyde and
myristicin have exhibited mild insecticidal properties.(G41) Antispasmodic
activity Anise oil (200 mg/L) was shown to antagonise carbachol-induced spasms
in a guinea-pig tracheal muscle preparation.(G52) Secretolytic and expectorant
effect Application of aniseed (6.4 g/140 mL) to isolated ciliated epithelium of
frog trachea induces small increases in transport velocity.(G52)Dilutions of anise
oil increased respiratory tract fluid in anaesthetised guineapigs, rats and
cats. A similar action was observed in anaesthetised rabbits inhaling anise
oil.(G52) The reputed lactogogic action of anise has been attributed to anethole,
which exerts a competitive antagonism at dopamine receptor sites (dopamine
inhibits prolactin secretion), and to the action of polymerised anethole, which
is structurally related to the oestrogenic compounds stilbene and
diethylstilbestrol.(3) CNS activities Whole plant aqueous infusions have been
reported to delay (but not prevent) the onset of picrotoxin-induced seizures and
to reduce the mortality rate in mice following intraperitoneal injection.(4)
Aniseed has also been found to slightly elevate gaminobutyric acid (GABA)
concentrations in brain tissue.(4) The anticonvulsant effect is much weaker
with aniseed than with conventional drug treatment and therefore its use as an
anticonvulsant in Arabic folklore is not supported.(4) Anise oil diluted in
sesame oil (0.25–1.0 mL/kg) given intraperitoneally to mice increased in a
dose-dependent manner the dose of pentylenetetrazole needed to induce clonic and
tonic seizures.(5) Activity was also observed against tonic seizures induced by
maximal electric shock. Motor impairment was observed at higher doses of anise
oil. Pentobarbital-induced sleeping time was prolonged by intraperitoneal
administration of anise oil (50 mg/kg) to mice.(G52)
OTHER ACTIVITIES
Oral administration
of anethole (250–1000 mg/kg) to Swiss albino mice with Ehrlich ascites tumour
in the paws indicated antitumour activity.(6) The conclusions were based on biochemical
changes (nucleic acids, proteins, malondialdehyde, glutathione), survival rate
and tumour weight. Anise oil given to rats (100 mg/kg given subcutaneously)
stimulated liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy.(G52)
CLINICAL
STUDIES
There is a lack of
documented clinical research involving aniseed and rigorous randomised
controlled clinical trials are required.
ACTIONS AND
PHARMACOLOGY
(Medical Economics
Company, 2000)
COMPOUNDS: PIMPINELLA HERB
Flavonoids
The foliage of the plant has not
been fully investigated.
EFFECTS: PIMPINELLA HERB
No information is available.
COMPOUNDS: PIMPINELLA ROOT
Volatile oil (0.05 to 0.7%): chief components-
trans-epoxypseudo- isoeugenol (20-57%), additionally pregeijeren (10%), geijerene
(3%), beta-bisabolene, germacrenes A to D, 1,4-dimethyl azulene
Furocoumarins (1.2-2.3%): including among others
bergaptene, isopimpinellin, pimpinellin, isobergapten, sphondine
Hydroxycoumarins: umbelliferone, scopoletin
Caffeic acid esters: including among others,
chlorogenic acid
Polyynes: including trideca-2,8,10-trien-4,6-diine;
trideca-2,8-dien-4,6-diin-10-ole
EFFECTS: PIMPINELLA ROOT
The drug contains essential oil.
The efficacy of the drug as a flushing-out therapy in bacterial infections of the
urinary tract seems plausible. The expectorant effect has not been proven.
INDICATIONS AND
USAGE (Medical Economics Company, 2000)
PIMPINELLA HERB
Preparations of Pimpinella herb
are used internally for lung ailments and to stimulate gastrointestinal activity.
The herb is used externally for varicose veins.
PIMPINELLA ROOT
Approved by Commission E:
• Cough/bronchitis Preparations
of the root are also used for colds, chills and catarrh of the yppef-
respiratory tract.
Unproven Uses: In folk medicine, it is used
internally for disorders of the urinary organs, inflammation of the bladder and
kidney, bladder and kidney stones, and edema. It is also used as flushing-out
therapy in bacterial inflammation of the efferent urinary tract. Externally, it
is used for inflammation of the oral and pharyngeal mucous membrane and as a
bath additive for poorly healing wounds.
•Homeopathic Uses: Homeopathic
uses include febrile states and spinal pain. Efficacy of the flushing-out
therapy seems plausible, efficacy for the other indications has not been sufficiently
proven.
PRECAUTIONS AND
ADVERSE REACTIONS
(Medical Economics
Company, 2000)
PIMPINELLA HERB
No health hazards or side effects
are known in conjunction with the proper administration of designated
therapeutic dosages.
PIMPINELLA ROOT
No health hazards or side effects
are known in conjunction with the proper administration of designated
therapeutic dosages. Photosensitivity may occur in light-skinned individuals.
PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES AND CLINICAL TRIALS
(Ross, I. A. 2004)
Absorption effects. The essential oil, administered to
the abdomen of mice at a concentration of 0.25%, was inactive after 2
hoursPAo118 •
Adenosine nucleotide release
inhibition. The
essential oil, in cell culture at a concentration of 100.0 mcg/ml, was active
on aortic endotheliumPAo165 .
Adenosine uptake inhibition. The essential oil, in cell
culture at a concentration of 40.0 mcg/ml, was active on aortic
endotheliumPAo165.
Allergenic activity. The essential oil, at a concentration
of 5.0%, produced contact dermatitis in cake factory workersrAom.
Analgesic activity. Hot water extract of the dried
seed, administered intraperitoneally to mice at a dose of 150.0 mg/kg, was active
vs benzoquinone-induced writhing and the hot plate methodPA0 198.
Antibacterial activity. Decoction of the dried fruit, on
agar plate, was inactive on Pseudomonas aeruginosarAo 137 • The ethanol (95%)
extract, at a concentration of 50.0 microliters/plate, was active on Staphylococcus
aureusrA0140. The water extract, at concentrations of 1.0 mg/mlrAo122 and 50.0
microliters/ platerAo140, was inactive on Salmonella typhi and Staphylococcus
aureus, respectively. The hot water extract, at a concentration of 62.5
mg/ml, was inactive on Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureusrA0136
• The fruit essential oil, on agar plate, was active on Bacillus
subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Staphylococcus aureus, rA0195 and Bacillus cereusrA0197 . The
essential oil, on agar plate, was active on Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus
aureus, and inactive on Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coliPAoJso.
Anticonvulsant activity. Ethanol ( 9 5%) extract of the
dried fruit, administered intraperitoneally to mice at a dose of 2-4 ml/kg, was
active vs supramaximal electroshock- induced convulsions; produced weak activity
vs corazol-induced convulsions and was inactive vs strychnine-induced
convulsionsrAoJo6. Water extract of the dried twig, administered
intraperitoneally to mice at a dose of 0.2 ml/animal, was active vs picrotoxin-
induced convulsions, results significant at p <0.001 levelrAo193.
Anticrustacean activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the
dried fruit was active on Artemia salina, LD10 145 mcg/mlrAollo.
Antiedema activity. Methanol extract of the fruit, applied
topically to the mouse at a dose of 2.0 mg/ear, was active vs 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced
ear inflammation. The inhibition ratio was 6PAOIJ2.
Antifungal activity. Hot water extract of the dried fruit,
at a concentration of 62.5 mg/ml, was inactive on Aspergillus niger rAo136
. The fruit essential oil, on agar plate, was active on Lentinus lepideus,
Lenzites trabea, and Polyporus versicolorrAo112 . A concen-tration
of 500 ppm was active on Alternaria alternata, Alternaria tenuissima,
Aspergillus awamori, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus
ochraceus, Aspergillus sydowi, Aspergillus tamarii, Aspergillus
terreus, Botryodiplodia threobromae, Cladosporium herbarum, Cladosporium
werneckii, Colletotrichum capsici, Curvularia lunata, Curvularia
pallescens, Fusarium monoliforme, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium
udum, Mucor spinescence, Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillum citrinum,
and Rhizopus nigricansrAo194 . The oil produced strong activity on Aspergillus
aegyptiacus, Penicillium cyclopium, and Trichoderma viriderA0197. A concentration of 1.0 ml/plate was active on
Rhizoctonia solani and Sderotinia sclerotiorum; inactive on Phytophthora
capsici and produced weak activity on Fusarium moniliformerAo124. The
seed essential oil, on agar plate, was active on Aspergillus flavus,
Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum, and Penicillium species
PA0162 . The essential oil, on agar plate, was inactive on Penicillium
cyclopium, Trichoderma viride, and Aspergillus aegyptiacusrAoJso.
Antihypertensive activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the
dried entire plant, in a mixture containing Cucumis melo, Carum carvi, Zea
mays, F oeniculum vulgare, Laurus nobilis, Prunus avium, and T
ribulus terrestris, was activefA0189 •
Anti-inflammatory activity. Ethyl acetate and hexane extracts
of the fruit, applied topically to the mouse at a dose of 20.0 microliters/animal,
were equivocal vs tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate-induced acetate phospholipid synthesis
and 12-0-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate-induced ear inflammation. The
methanol extract produced weak activity vs tetradecanoyl phorbol acetateinduced
acetate phospholipid synthesisrAoJzs.
Antimutagenic activity. Infusion of the fruit, on agar
plate at a concentration of 100.0 microliters/disc, was inactive on Salmonella
typhimurium TAIOO vs ethyl methanesulfonate-induced mutagenicity. It was
also active on Salmonella typhimurium TA98 vs 2-amino-anthracene induced
mutagenicity. Metabolic activation was required for activityPA0144 •
Antinematodal activity. Water extract of the fruit, at a
concentration of 10.0 mg/ml, produced weak activity on Toxacara canis. The
methanol extract, at a concentration of 1.0 mg/ml, was active~'A0159.
Antioxidant activity. Petroleum ether extract of the
fruit, at a concentration of 0.1 %, was inactive, and the petroleum ether
insoluble fraction produced weak activityrAom.
Antispasmodic activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the dried
entire plant, in a mixture containing Cucumis melo, Carum carvi, Zea
mays, F oeniculum vulgare, Laurus nobilis, Prunus avium, and Tribulus
terrestris, was activefA0189 •
Antiviral activity. Ethanol (80%) and water extracts
of the dried aerial parts, in cell culture at concentrations of 6.0 and 8.0 mg/ml
respectively, were active on Rinderpest virusrAo196 • Water extract of the
dried fruit, in cell culture at a concentration of 10.0%, was inactive on
Herpes virus type 2, influenza virus A2 (Manheim 57), poliovirus II, and
vaccinia virusrAotss.
Antiyeast activity. The fruit essential oil, on agar
plate, was active on Candida albicansrAoi95 •
Barbiturate potentiation. Ether extract of the dried seed,
administered intraperitoneally to mice at a dose of 100.0 mg/kg, was inactiveAotss.
The essential oil, administered intraperitoneally to mice at a dose of 50.0
mg/kg, produced 93% prolongation~'A0167 •
Chromosome aberration induction. The seed, together with the seed
of Cuminum cyminum, administered intragastrically to mice at a dose of
0.1 gm/animal, produced weak activity on the sperm and bone marrow~'A0161
•
Clastogenic activity. The seed, together with the seed
of Cuminum cyminum, administered intragastrically to mice at a dose of 0.1
gm/animal, produced weak activity on bone marrow micronucleated cellsPAoi 61 •
CNS depressant activity. The essential oil, applied
externally to goldfish, was activel'AotoH.
Cytotoxic activity. Ethanol (50%) extract of the
fruit, in cell culture, was inactive on CA-98KB, E050 >20.0 mcg/mlPAotoJ.
Cytotoxic activity. Water extract of the dried fruit,
in cell culture at a concentration of 10.0%, was inactive on Hela cellsrAotss.
Diuretic activity. The dried seed, administered by
gastric intubation to rabbits, was active. The effect was blocked by morphine
PA0117.
Estrogenic effect. The essential oil, administered subcutaneously
to ovariectomized rats at a dose of 0.1 ml/animal, produced an activity
equivalent to 0.1 meg estradiol~'A0105. The essential oil, administered
subcutaneously to ovariectomized mice, produced activity equivalent to less
than 10 units/ml. When administered to immature female rats, activity
equivalent to 100 units/ml was producedrAotoo. The seed oil, administered subcutaneously
to ovariectomized rats, was active Expectorant activity. The essential
oil, administered orally to guinea pigs at a dose of 10.0 mg/kg, was active~'A0107.
Galactagogue effect. Ethanol (95%) extract of the
dried fruit, in a preparation containing Carum carvi, Foeniculum vulgare, Anethum
graveolens, T rigonella foenumgraecum, and Petroselinum crispum, taken
orally by 80 nursing mothers with low breast milk, was effective.
The quantity of milk increased while taking the mixture. It had no
effect on the milk content (water, fat and carbohydrate), and no toxic
effect was observed in either mothers or babiesr MIYt.
Glutathione-S-transferase
induction. The essential
oil, administered intragastrically to mice at a dose of 30.0 mg/animal every other
day for a total of 3 doses, was inactive on the small intestine, liver and stomach~'
A0160.
GRAS status. The seed was approved by the
United States of America Food and Drug Administration in 1976 (Sect. 582.10) as
a flavoring agen rPAom.
Hypotensive
activity. Ethanol
(50%) extract of the fruit, administered intravenously to dogs at a dose of
50.5 mg/kg, was active PAOIOJ.
Hypotensive
activity. Water
extract of the seed, at a concentration of 10%, was active in rats. The effect
was abolished by atropine PAois4.
Immunosuppressant
activity. The
essential oil, administered intragastrically to mice at a dose of 0.3 7 5
gm/kg, was inactive. Humoral immunity was assayed in sheep erythrocyte plaque
formation, and cellular immunity assayed in survival time after Listeria
monocytogenes infection rAo138 •
Insecticidal
activity. Acetone
extract of the aerial parts was active on Musca domesticaPAOI66.
Chloroform extract of the fresh aerial parts was active on Aedes aegypti and
Drosophila melanogasterrAo166.
Kidney stone
dissolution. Ethanol
(95%) extract of the dried entire plant, in a mixture containing Cucumis
melo, Carum carvi, Zea mays, F oeniculum vulgare, Laurus nobilis, Prunus
avium, and Tribulus terrestris, was taken by 300 patients with
kidney and ureteral stones. Sixty-seven percent of the patients passed stones,
18% transferred and there was a decrease in volume of the stones in 11% of the
patients. Ninety-eight percent of the patients reported relief from
colicrAois9•
Liver regeneration
stimulation. The
seed essential oil, administered subcutaneously to partially hepatectomized
rats at a dose of 100.0 mg/animal daily for 7 days, was active, results
significant at p <0.01 levelPAoi 76.
Mutagenic
activity. Ethanol
(95%) extract of the dried fruit, on agar plate at a concentration of 10.0
mg/plate, produced weak activity on Salmonella typhimurium TA102PAouo.
Ethanol (95%) extract of the dried seed, on agar plate at a concentration of
5-20 mg/plate, was active on streptomycin-dependent strain of Salmonella
typhimurium TA98. Metabolic activation had no effect on the resultsrAo192 •
Nematocidal
activity. Water
extract of the dried fruit, in cell culture at a concentration of 10.0 mg/ml,
and methanol extract, at a concentration of 1.0 mg/ml, were active on Toxacara
canisrAo142 •
Skeletal muscle
stimulant activity. Water
extract of the seed, at a concentration of 10.0%, was active on the frog rectus
abdominus muscle. The effect was abolished by tubocurarinePAois4•
Smooth muscle
relaxant activity. The
essential oil was active on the dog small intestinePA0203 • The essential oil,
at a concentration of 100.0 mg/liter, was inactive on guinea pig ileumPA0190.
Smooth muscle
stimulant activity. Water
extract of the seed, at a concentration of 10%, was active on rat jejunum. The
effect was abolished by atropinePA0154 •
Toxicity
assessment. Ethanol
(95%) extract of the dried entire plant, administered intraperitoneally to mice
in a mixture containing Cucumis melo, Carum carvi, Zea mays, F oeniculum
vulgare, Laurus nobilis, Prunus avium, and Tribulus terrestris, produced
LD50 7.0 mg/kgPAois9.
Tumor promotion
inhibition. Hexane
and methanol extracts of the fruit, in cell culture at a concentration of 50.0
mcg/ml, were equivocal on C3H/10TI/2 cells, and the ethyl acetate extract
produced weak activity vs tetradecanoyl phorbol acetateinduced acetate
phospholipid synthesisrAoizs.
Uterine relaxation
effect. The seed
oil, administered intraperitoneally to rats at a dose of 0.1 ml/animal, was
activePA0110
DOSAGE
DOSAGE
(Barnes, J et al., 2007)
Dosages for oral
administration (adults, unless otherwise stated) for traditional uses
recommended in older and contemporary standard herbal reference texts are given
below.
•
Dried fruit Adults: 1.0–5.0 g crushed fruits in 150 mL water as
an infusion several times daily.(G52) Children: 0–1 year old, 1.0 g of crushed
fruits as an infusion; 1–4 years of age, 2.0 g; over four years, use adult
dose.(G52)
•
Oil 0.05–0.2mL three times daily.(G7)
•
Spirit of anise (BPC 1949) 0.3–1.0mL three times daily.
•
Distilled anise water (BPC 1934) 15–30mL three times daily.
DOSAGES (Linda,
S-R. 2010)
•
Adult PO essential oil: 1-5
drops diluted prn (Moore, 1996)
•
Adult PO whole herb: 3 g
(Blumenthal, 1998)
•
Adult topical: 5%-10%
concentration essential oil, applied prn; spirit of anise 0.25-0.50 tsp (1:10
dilution in alcohol), diluted (Moore, 1996)
•
Child PO tea: 1⁄2-3 cups daily
(Romm, 2003)
DOSAGES (Duke, J. A.et
al., 2002)
1 tsp crushed
seed/cup water 3 ×/day; 3 g seed, or 300 mg seed oil/day (BIS; PHR); 0.5–1 g
seed in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN; HHB); 0.5–3 g fruits (HH2); 20 g fruit in alcohol or
water (JFM); 0.5–1 tsp tincture up to 3 ×/day (APA); 0.05–0.2 ml fruit EO (CAN;
PNC); 0.3–1 ml anise water (CAN; PNC); 0.3–1.2 ml anise spirit (PNC).
DOSAGE AND
DURATION OF USE (Kraft, K and Hobbs, Ch. 2004)
– Internal administration
•Daily dose:3
g dried seeds.
•Tea:One
cup in the morning and/or evening (expectorant). For gastrointestinal complaints:
1 tablespoon daily (adults), 1 teaspoon in bottle (infants).
– When used as a liniment ,
apply the oil every 30 to 60 minutes (acute) or 1 to 3 times a day (chronic).
DOSAGE (Medical
Economics Company, 2000)
PIMPINELLA ROOT
Mode of Administration: Pimpinella root is administered
as a tincture (Tinctura Pimpinellae) and as a comminuted herb for teas and
other galenic preparations for internal use.
Daily Dosage: 6 to 12 g drug for
infusions or 6 to 15 ml pimpernel tincture (1:5).
Folk medicine — Add freshly cut
drug to cold water and bring to the boil, use as a gargle and as a bath
additive.
Infusion — 3 to 10 g; 1 cup 3 to
4 times daily (sweetened with honey).
Gargle tincture — 30 drops in a
glass of water.
For coughs — 5 to 10 drops on a
sugar lump.
Homeopathic Dosage: 5 drops, 1 tablet or 10 globules
every 30 to 60 minutes (acute) or 1 to 3 times daily (chronic); parenterally: 1
to 2 ml sc; acute: 3 times daily; chronic: once a day (HAB1).
CONTRA-INDICATIONS, SIDE EFFECTS/ADVERSE REACTION,
INTERACTIONS, WARNING
CONTRA-INDICATIONS, WARNINGS (Barnes, J et al., 2007)
Aniseed may cause
an allergic reaction. It is recommended that the use of aniseed oil should be
avoided in dermatitis, and inflammatory or allergic skin conditions.(G31, G58) Aniseed
should be avoided by persons with known sensitivity to anethole.(G52)
Bergapten may cause
photosensitivity in sensitive individuals. In view of the structural similarity
reported between anethole and myristicin, consumption of large amounts of
aniseed may cause neurological effects similar to those documented for nutmeg. Drug
interactions None documented. However, the potential for preparations of
aniseed to interact with other medicines administered concurrently, particularly
those with similar (e.g. hormonal therapies) or opposing effects, should be
considered.
Pregnancy and
lactation Traditionally, aniseed is reputed to be an abortifacient (G22) and
also to promote lactation. The safety of aniseed taken during pregnancy and
lactation has not been established; however, there are no known problems
provided that doses taken do not greatly exceed the amounts used in foods. It has
been proposed that aniseed and preparations used at recommended dosages may be
used during pregnancy and lactation.(G52)
INDICATIONS
(Duke, J. A et al. 2002)
Andropause (f;
CAN); Anemia (1; APA); Anorexia (2; CRC; PHR; PH2); Arthrosis (f; PH2);
Asthma (f; CRC); Bacteria (2; HH2; KOM; PHR; PH2; PIP); Bronchosis (2; CAN; CRC; PHR;
PH2); Cancer (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, bladder (f; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f; JLH); Cancer, liver
(f; JLH); Cancer, lung (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer,
uterus (f; JLH); Cancer, uvula (f; JLH); Catarrh (2; CAN; DEM; HH2; KOM; PH2); Childbirth
(f; CRC); Cholecystosis (2; CRC; PHR); Cholera (f; CRC); Cold (2; PHR; PH2); Colic (1;
APA; CAN; CRC; PH2); Colitis (f; HH2); Congestion (f; AHA); Convulsion (1; CAN); Cough (2;
APA; CAN; PHR; PH2); Cramp (2; AHA; CAN; HH2; KOM; PHR; PH2); Dropsy (f; CRC);
Dysmenorrhea (f; CAN; CRC; HH2; PH2); Dyspepsia (1; APA; BIS; CRC; PH2);
Epilepsy (f; CRC); ERT (1; CAN; FNF); Fever (2; CRC; PHR; PH2); Frigidity (f;
AHA; CAN; FNF); Fungus
(1; CRC; WOI); Gas (1; APA; CAN; CRC; HHB; JFM; PH2; SHT); Gastrosis (f; DEM);
Halitosis (1; AHA; CRC); Hepatosis (2; PHR; PH2); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (2; CRC;
KOM; PHR; PIP); Insomnia (f; CRC); Lice (1; APA; CRC; WOI); Lumbago (f; PH2); Migraine
(f; CRC); Morning Sickness (f; AHA); Mucososis (2; CAN; KOM; PHR); Mycosis (1; CRC);
Nausea (f; AHA; CRC); Nephrosis (f; CRC); Nervousness (f; CRC); Neuralgia (f; CRC); Pain (1;
CRC; HH2; PH2); Parasite (1; CAN); Parturition (f; AHA); Pediculosis (topical) (1; APA;
CAN); Pertussis (f; CAN; PH2); Pharyngosis (2; PHR; PH2); Poor Milk Supply (1;
CAN); Psoriasis (1; CAN); Respirosis (f; PH2); Scabies (topical) (f; APA; CAN; CRC); Sclerosis (f;
JLH); Splenosis (f; JLH); Stomatosis (2; PHR; PH2); Stone (f; CRC); Tracheosis (f;
CAN); Tuberculosis (f; HH2; PH2); Tumor (f; JLH); Ulcer (f; JLH); Virus (1; HH2; PH2).
CONTRAINDICATIONS (Linda, S-R. 2010)
Anise is not
recommended for therapeutic use during pregnancy. It should not be used by persons
with hypersensitivity to anise or anethole. The essential oil should never be
given to children. Anise may be used during breastfeeding.
CONTRAINDICATIONS,
INTERACTIONS, AND SIDE EFFECTS
(Duke,
J. A et al. 2002)
Class 2b (AHP).
“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
“Occasional allergic reactions of the skin, respiratory tract and
gastrointestinal tract” (BIS, KOM). We might extend to all apiaceous oils
Bisset’s comments on celeryseed oil, “The drug is contraindicated in inflammation
of the kidneys,” since apiaceous EOs may increase the inflammation as a result of
epithelial irritation (BIS). Oil reported carminative and expectorant; 1–5 ml
can cause nausea, pulmonary edema, seizures, and vomiting; LD50 EO =2700 mg/kg
orl rat (HH2). Anethole in the volatile oil may cause contact dermatosis (CAN).
Commission E reports contraindications for fruit: hypersensitivity; adverse
effects: allergic reactions (occasionally) (AEH). Seed, reportedly
abortifacient and lactagogue, should not be used in pregnancy and lactation in
amounts exceeding those used in foods (CAN). “Often used in pediatric practice”
(BIS). Nursing mothers taking anise or fennel tea, or both, to stimulate
lactation caused temporary CNS disturbances, emesis, lethargy, poor suckling, restlessness,
and torpor in the newborn (15–20 days old), possibly due to anethole in the milk.
(Infants were healthy at 6-month follow up.) (Acta Pediatrica 83:683;
1994). Excessive dose may interfere with anticoagulant, contraceptive, ERT, and
MAOI therapy.
SIDE-EFFECTS, TOXICITY (Barnes,
J et al., 2007)
Contact dermatitis
reactions to aniseed and aniseed oil have been attributed to anethole.(7, G31,
G51) Reactions have been reported with products, such as creams and
toothpastes, flavoured with aniseed oil.(G51) The volatile oil and anethole
have been stated to be both irritant and sensitising.(G31, G51) Two female
workers in a cake factory developed severe dermatitis, and patch tests
indicated sensitivity to anise oil and to anethole.(8) Soreness, dryness and cracking
of lips and perioral skin occurred in an individual using a herbal (fennel)
toothpaste; anethole was reported to be the sensitising agent.(9) Bergapten is known
to cause photosensitivity reactions and concern has been expressed over the
possible carcinogenic risk of bergapten.(G45) Ingestion of as little as 1–5mL
of anise oil can result in nausea, vomiting, seizures, and pulmonary oedema.(7)
The LD50 values per
kg body weight for anise oil and transanethole are 2.7 g and 2–3 g, respectively.(G52)
Mild liver lesions were observed in rats fed repeated anethole doses (695
mg/kg) for an unspecified duration.(3) Hepatic changes have been described in rats
fed anethole in their daily diet (1%) for 15 weeks,(G22) although at a level of
0.25% there were no changes after one year. Rats fed with 0.1% trans-anethole in
their diet for 90 days showed no toxic effects, but higher concentrations
(0.3%, 1.0% and 3.0%) resulted in liver oedema.(G52) In therapeutic doses,
anethole is reported to cause minimal hepatotoxicity.(G22) Trans-anethole given
orally to rats (50–80 mg/kg) resulted in dose-dependent antiimplantation activity.(10)
Significant oestrogenic activity was observed, but no anti-oestrogenic, progestational,
anti-progestational, androgenic or antiandrogenic activity.(10) Oral
administration (1% of diet) of trans-anethole to rats resulted in induction of
parathion-degrading drug enzymes.(G52)
Male Wistar rats
were treated with trans-anethole (125 or 250 mg/ kg) by gavage for 10 days and the
activities of liver microsome and cytosol phase I and II biotransformation
enzymes were determined.( 11) There was no effect on cytochrome P450, but
UDPglucuronyltransferase activity in the cytosol towards the substrates 4-chlorophenol
and 4-hydroxyphenol was significantly increased for both doses. It was
concluded that trans-anethole preferentially induces phase II biotransformation
in rat liver in vivo.(11) The safety of trans-anethole (4-methoxy
propenylbenzene) has been reviewed by the Expert Panel of the Flavour and
Extract Manufacturer Association (FEMA).(2)
The evaluation was
based on whether the hepatotoxic metabolite anethole epoxide is produced. At
low levels of exposure, trans-anethole is efficiently detoxicated in rodents
and humans, primarily by O-demethylation and o-oxidation, respectively, while
epoxidation is only a minor pathway. At higher doses in rats, a metabolic shift
occurs resulting in epoxidation and formation of anethole epoxide. The
continuous intake of high doses of trans-anethole induces a continuum of
cytotoxicity, cell necrosis and cell proliferation. In chronic dietary studies
in rats, hepatotoxicity resulted when the daily production of anethole epoxide exceeded
30 mg anethole epoxide per kg body weight. Neither trans-anethole nor anethole
epoxide showed any evidence of genotoxicity.
The Expert Panel
concluded that the hepatocarcinogenic effects in female rats occur via a
nongenotoxic mechanism and are secondary to hepatotoxicity caused by continuous
exposures to high hepatocellular concentrations of anethole epoxide.
Trans-anethole was reaffirmed as GRAS, based on a thorough study of the
scientific literature.(1) Because transanethole undergoes efficient metabolic
detoxication in humans at low levels of exposure, the neoplastic effects in
rats associated with dose-dependent hepatotoxicity are not indicators of any significant
risk to human health from the use of trans-anethole as a flavouring substance.(1)
Coumarin compounds detected so far in aniseed do not possess the minimum
structural requirements (a C-4 hydroxyl substituent and a C-3 non-polar carbon
substituent)(G87) for anticoagulant activity.
SIDE
EFFECTS/ADVERSE REACTIONS (Linda, S-R. 2010)
CNS: Seizures (essential
oil) (internal)
EENT: Stomatitis
(toothpaste)
ENDO: Hypermineralocorticism
(internal)
GI: Nausea,
vomiting, anorexia (internal)
INTEG: Hypersensitivity,
contact dermatitis
RESP: Pulmonary edema (essential
oil) (internal)
INTERACTIONS (Linda, S-R. 2010)
Drug
Estrogens, hormonal
contraceptives: Large quantities of anise may
interfere with estrogen replacement therapy or hormonal contraceptives
(theoretical) (Jellin et al, 2008).
Iron: Anise
may increase the action of iron; do not use concurrently.
Warfarin: Anise
may increase the action of warfarin, do not use concurrently (Heck et al,
2000).
Lab Test
Increased: PT,
INR
Primary Chemical
Components and Possible Actions (Linda,S-R)
|
||
Chemical Class
|
Individual
Component
|
Possible Action
|
Volatile
oil
|
Anethole
|
Antimicrobial, antifungal,
estrogenic
|
Alpha-pinene
Coumarin
|
Bergapten
Umbelliprenine;
Umbelliferone;
Scopoletin
|
Photosensitivity, carcinogenic
|
Lipid/fatty acid
Flavonoid
|
Quercetin
Rutin; Luteolin; Isoorientin;
Isovitexin; Apigenin
|
Antiinfl ammatory
|
Sitosterol
Linalool
Anisaldehyde
|
||
CLIENT CONSIDERATIONS (Linda, S-R. 2010)
Assess
• Assess the reason the client is using this product.
• Assess the client for hypersensitivity reactions and
contact dermatitis. If these are present, discontinue use of anise and
institute antihistamines or another appropriate therapy.
• Assess for the use of iron supplements,
warfarin (see Interactions). A
• Assess the client’s fl uid and
electrolyte balance. Weigh the client weekly to determine water and sodium
retention.
Administer
• Instruct the client to take anise PO using the whole herb or
seeds. The essential oil should be used under an herbalist’s supervision only.
Toxicity can occur.
Teach Client/Family
• Caution the client not to use anise therapeutically during
pregnancy. It may be used during breastfeeding.
• Caution the client that anise tea is often used to treat
children’s respiratory conditions, but the essential oil should never be given
to children.
• Caution the client not to use anise essential oil without an
herbalist’s supervision; toxicity is common. Both seizures and pulmonary edema
can result.
• Caution the client that Illicium anisatum L. is poisonous
and that it can easily be confused with Illicium verum (Small, 1996).
PREPARATIONS
Proprietary
multi-ingredient preparations
Australia:
Neo-Cleanse. Austria: Asthmatee EF-EM-ES; Brady's- Magentropfen; Euka;
Nesthakchen. Brazil: Balsamo Branco. Chile: Paltomiel. Czech Republic: Blahungstee
N. France: Elixir Bonjean; Herbesan; Mediflor Tisane Digestive No 3; Mucinum a
l'Extrait de Cascara. Germany: Em-medical; Floradix Multipretten N;
Majocarmin-Tee; Ramend Krauter. Hong Kong: Mucinum Cascara. Israel: Jungborn. Italy:
Cadifen; Cadimint; Dicalmir; Lassatina; Tisana Kelemata. Russia: Original
Grosser Bittner Balsam (Оригинальный Большой Бальзам Биттнера). South Africa: Clairo;
Cough Elixir. Spain: Crislaxo; Digestovital; Laxante Sanatorium; Laxomax.
Switzerland: Kernosan Elixir; Kernosan Heidelberger Poudre; Tisane favorisant
l'allaitement. UK: Herb and Honey Cough Elixir; Revitonil. Venezuela:
Neo-Atropan.
PIMPINELLA
(Pimpinella
saxifraga L.) ++
(Duke,
J. A et al. 2002)
KOM treats P.
saxifraga L. and P. major (L.) Huds. as one. PHR and PH2 call it
just P. major, not covering P. saxifraga. HHB treats both,
admitting that there is a H. saxifraga var. maior, giving uses as
though they were interchangeable. HH2 treats them as two distinct species. I
treat them as an aggregate, although still maintaining the HDR entries as
separate.
ACTIVITIES
Antispasmodic (f;
MAD); Diuretic (f; MAD); Emmenagogue (f; HHB); Expectorant (f; HHB; PH2);
Lactagogue (f; MAD); Secretolytic (2; PHR); Secretomotor (2; PHR); Vermifuge
(f; HHB); Vulnerary (f; MAD).
INDICATIONS
Angina (f; HHB; MAD); Asthma (f; HHB); Backache (f; PH2); Bacteria
(f; PH2); Bladder Stone (f; MAD; PHR); Bronchosis (2; HHB; PHR); Cardiopathy
(f; MAD); Catarrh (2; KOM; PH2); Chill (f; PHR; PH2); Cholecystosis (f; PHR);
Cold (f; PHR; PH2); Colic (f; MAD); Cough (2; PHR; PH2); Cramp (f; MAD); Croup
(f; HHB); Cystosis (f; MAD; PH2); Diphtheria (f; MAD); Dyslactea (f; MAD);
Dysuria (f; PHR); Eczema (f; MAD); Edema (f; PHR; PH2); Enterosis (f; PH2);
Epistaxis (f; HHB); Frostbite (f; HHB); Gastrosis (f; MAD; PH2); Gout (f; HHB;
MAD); Headache (f; HHB); Hepatosis (f; MAD); Infection (f; PH2); Inflammation (f;
PH2); Kidney Stone (f; MAD; PHR; PH2); Laryngosis (f; HHB); Mucososis (2; PHR);
Nephrosis (f; MAD; PHR; PH2); Nervousness (f; MAD); Ophthalmia (f; MAD); Otosis
(f; MAD); Pain (f; PH2); Palpitation (f; HHB); Pharyngosis (f; HHB; PHR; PH2); Phthisis
(f; MAD); Plethora (f; MAD); Pulmonosis (f; PH2); Respirosis (2; KOM; MAD); Rhinosis
(f; HHB); Sore Throat (f; HHB); Splenosis (f; MAD); Stomatosis (f; PHR; PH2);
Stone (f; PH2); Uterosis (f; MAD); Varicosis (f; PHR; PH2); Worm (f; HHB);
Wound (f; PHR).
DOSAGES
0.5–10 g root
(HHB); 6–12 g dry root (KOM); 6–12 (–15) g root tincture (1:5) (KOM; PH2);
10–15 drops root tincture (MAD); 1 tsp (4.6 g) herb in wine (MAD).
CONTRAINDICATIONS, INTERACTIONS,
AND SIDE EFFECTS
Not covered (AHP).
None known (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic
dosages” (PH2). Furanocoumarins may generate phototoxicity in fair-skinned
people (PH2).
REFERENCE
Barnes, J.,
Anderson, L. A., and Phillipson, J. D. 2007. Herbal Medicines
Third Edition. Pharmaceutical
Press. Auckland and London.
Duke, J. A.
with Mary Jo Bogenschutz-Godwin, Judi duCellier, Peggy-Ann K. Duke. 2002. Handbook of Medicinal
Herbs 2nd Ed. CRC Press LLC. USA.
Kraft, K and Hobbs, C. 2004 . Pocket Guide to
Herbal Medicine. Thieme. Stuttgart New York.
Linda S-Roth. 2010. Mosby’s Handbook Of
Herbs & Natural Supplements, Fourth Edition. Mosby Elsevier. USA.
Medical
Ross, I. A.
2005. Medicinal Plants of
the World Vol. 3. Chemical Constituents, Traditional and Modern Medical Uses. Human Press.
Totowa, New Jersey.
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