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HERBAL MEDICINES
Zingiber
officinale
Roscoe (Zingiberaceae)
by
Rettodwikart Thenu
Rettodwikart Thenu
ZINGIBER OFFICINALE
Roscoe.
SUMMARY
AND PHARMACEUTICAL COMMENT (Barnes, J et
al., 2007)
The
chemistry of ginger is well documented with respect to the oleo-resin and
volatile oil. Oleo-resin components are considered to be the main active
principles in ginger and documented pharmacological actions generally support
the traditional uses. In addition, a number of other pharmacological activities
have been documented, including hypoglycaemic, antihypercholesterolaemic,
anti-ulcer and inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, all of which require further
investigation. The use of ginger as a prophylactic remedy against motion
sickness is contentious. It seems likely that ginger may act by a local action
on the gastrointestinal tract, rather than by a centrally mediated mechanism.
SPECIES
(FAMILY) (Barnes, J et al., 2007)
Zingiber
officinale
Roscoe (Zingiberaceae)
SYNONYM(S)
(Barnes, J et al., 2007)
Gan Jiang, Zingiber
PART(S)
USED (Barnes, J et al., 2007)
Rhizome
PHARMACOPOEIAL
AND OTHER MONOGRAPHS (Barnes, J et al., 2007)
BHC 1992(G6)
BHP 1996(G9)
BP 2007(G84)
BPC 1973(G12)
ESCOP 2003(G76)
Martindale 35th edition(G85)
Ph Eur 2007(G81)
USP29/NF24(G86)
WHO 1999 Volume 1(G63)
LEGAL
CATEGORY (LICENSED PRODUCTS) (Barnes, J et
al., 2007)
GSL(G37)
BOTANICAL
DESCRIPTION (Ross, I. A. 2005)
Zingiber officinale is a perennial herb belonging to
the ZINGIBERACEAE family. The rhizome is horizontal, branched, fleshy,
aromatic, white or yellowish to brown. Stem is leafy, thick, to 60 cm high.
Leaves are pointed, narrowly or linear-lanceolate, approx 20 cm long and 1.5–2
cm wide, clasping the stem by long sheaths. The inflorescences, rarely produced
by cultivated plants, are separate, approx 20 cm high, consisting of threefold
flowers subtending with bracts and bracteoles. Bracts are ovate, approx 2.5 cm
long, closely pressed against each other, pale green. Calyx is short,
threelobed. Corolla has two yellow-green, pointed segments and shorter, an
oblongovate, dark-purple lip spotted and striped with yellow. Each flower has
only one shortstalked, fertile stamen and solitary stigma. The fruit, which is
rarely formed, is a dehiscent capsule containing relatively large seeds.
BOTANICAL
DESCRIPTION (Quave, C.L. 2013)
Zingiber officinale belongs to the
tropical/sub-tropical family Zingiberaceae and the order Zingiberales. The
specific origin of Z. officinale species is unknown, but it is most likely to
have origins in tropical or sub-tropical India. Variants of the species are
dependent on the environment and Z. officinale var. cholmondeleyi F.
M. Bailey, Z. officinale var. Macrorhizonum Makino, Z.
officinale var. rubens Makino, Z. officinale var. rubrum Theilade,
and Z. officinale var. sichuanense Z. Y. Zhu et al. (Tropicos
2011).
Z. officinale is a perennial herb, making it
useful as an aesthetic plant, and can attain a stem length of 1.5 m. Branching
out from the stem are smooth, pale
green, lanceolate leaves that can grow to 5-30 cm long, 8-20 cm wide, and up to
2 cm thick.
A few shorter stems bear an
ovate-oblong spiked flower: a purple anterior petaloid divided into three
rounded lobes surrounds a tufted stigma and a fruit capsule with small arillate
seeds (Figure 1). These branches extend horizontally from the stem of the
plant, which projects vertically from the rhizome (WHO 2011).
The dried rhizome of Z.
officinale is scientifically referred to as Zingiberis rhizoma (Figure
2). The subterranean rhizomes are thickly lobed and tuberous with a
yellowish-brown to pale buff external surface with few scales. When the skin is
peeled, the aromatic rhizomes show fine longitudinal striations in the pale
yellow to white-colored flesh (Pakrashi 2003, 16-18).
Figure 1. The oblong flower of Z. officinale.
Figure 2. The knotted rhizome known as ginger is used in
food and medicine
around the world. (Source: precision nutrition.com)
ORIGIN
AND DISTRIBUTION (Ross, I. A. 2005)
Native
to southern Asia, it is widely distributed through the tropics and subtropics. Requires
a rather hot, moist climate and rich, well-drained soil. It is now cultivated in
Indonesia, Jamaica, Sri Lanka, and China.
TRADITIONAL
MEDICINAL USES (Ross, I. A. 2005)
Admiralty
Islands. The
rhizome is taken orally as a contraceptiveZO245. Brazil. Hot water extract of
the dried root is used externally for bronchitis and rheumatismZO253.
China. Ash of the burned leaves of Pongamia
pinnata, Citrullus colocynthis, Piper retrofractum, Plumbago zeylanica,
Zingiber officinale, and Piper longum, mixed with molasses and
rock salt, is taken orally to treat abdominal diseases, anemia, and phantom tumorsZO280. For choleric diarrhea and
chronic fever, powdered Ferula asafoetida, Acorus calamus, Zingiber
officinale, Cuminum, Terminalia chebula, Inula racemosa, and Saussurea
lappa, are taken orallyZO280. The oils of Zingiber officinale, Saussurea
lappa, Sansevieria roxburghiana, Curcuma longa, and Rubia
cordifolia, mixed with salt buttermilk, and rice, are massaged on the
patient for cold and coughZO280.
For heaviness of the stomach, powdered Ferula asafoetida, Acorus calamus,
Zingiber officinale, Cuminum cyminum, Terminalia chebula, Inula
racemosa, and Saussurea lappa, are taken orally. For skin diseases, decoction
of Tinospora cordifolia, Cyperus rotundus, and Zingiber
officinale, mixed with equal quantity of decoction of Aconitum
heterophyllum, is taken orallyZO280.
China. Decoction of the
dried rhizome is taken orally as an antiemeticZO133. Hot water extract
of the rhizome, in combination with Prunus persica (Sd), Carthamus
tinctorius (Fl), Angelica sinensis (Rt), Saliva miltiorrhiza (Rt),
Ligusticum wallichii (Rt, St), Gardenia jasminoides (Fr), Sanguisorba
officinalis (Rt), Corydalis ambigua (Tu), Glycyrrhiza uralensis (Rt),
Commiphora myrrha (resin), Boswellia carteri (resin), Cyperus
rotundus (Rh), Citrus tangerina (fruit peel), Pyrola japonica (Lf),
Agrimonia pilosa (Pl), Lonicera japonica (Pl), Panax sanchi (Rt),
Codonopsis pilosula (Rt), Astragalus membranaceus (Rt), Atractylodes
macrocephala (Rh), Curcumina aromatica (Rh), and Caesalpinia
sappan (heartwood), and the scales of the Manis pentadactyla, is
used to treat ectopic pregnancies.
Dosing for up to 8 days produced a pain relief, the tumors
disappeared in 100% of the cases, and bleeding stopped in 100% of the casesZO355. Decoction of the
fresh rhizome is taken orally for excruciating headache.
It is taken in combination with Evodia rutaecarpa, Zizyphus
jujuba, and Panax ginsengZO174. Hot water extract
of the rhizome is taken orally to suppress or retard the menstrual cycleZO165. The dried root,
mixed with Campanumoea pilosula (Rt), Astragalus hiroshimanus (Rh),
Araliacordata (Rt), and Paeonia albiflora (Rt), is administered
intravaginally for leucorrhea with backache, fever, and weak pulse
in patients with vaginal cancer. For menorrhagia in patients with
vaginal cancer, the dried root, mixed with Typha species (pollen)
and Agrimonia pilosa (twig), is administered intravaginallyZO299.
Cuba. Hot water extract
of the rhizome is taken orally as an emmenagogue and for its stimulating and
aphrodisiac properties by menZO354. The fresh rhizome is taken orally as
an antispasmodicZO154.
East Africa. The fresh root,
with scrapings of Ocimum suave, is taken orally for inflamed tonsils and
anginaZO260.
Ecuador. Decoction of the
rhizome is taken orally for migraines, diarrhea, and stomachacheZO152.
England. Dried rhizome is
taken in combination with Mentha pulegium (essential oil), Aloe vera,
Ipomoea purga, Glycyrrhiza glabra, and Canella alba for amenorrheaZO302. Infusion of the fresh
rhizome is taken orally in Chinese herbal formulations to reduce nausea and
vomiting during pregnancy. The peeled young ginger rhizome is simmered with
sweet malt vinegar for several hoursZO297.
Europe. Hot water extract
of the fresh rhizome is taken orally for delayed menstruation and for all forms
of motion sicknessZO300.
Fiji. Dried root, ground
with Vitex negundo leaves, is applied to the forehead for headache. For
colds, seeds of Elettaria cardamomum, Zingiber officinale rhizome, and
Piper nigrum seeds, are ground in water, mixed with honey, and taken
orallyZO266. Fresh rhizome juice, together with the juice of Allium
cepa, is taken orally to stop vomiting. The fresh juice is taken
with honey or sugar for coughs, colds, stomachache, and asthmaZO266. Fresh root juice
is administered as eardrop for earacheZO266.
Greece. Wine extract of the
rhizome, with pomegranate and oak gall, is used as a vaginal spermicidal suppositoryZO065.
Guatemala. Decoction of the
rhizome is taken orally for feverZO149.
Honduras. Decoction of the
rhizome is taken orally for coldZO159.
India. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome is administered orally as a remedy for whooping coughZO242 and hemorrhoids in Ayurvedic
medicineZO255. The rhizome, in combination with 25 g each of Prunus amygdalus
and Pistacia vera, 10 g of Piper nigrum, 100 g of Hedychium
spicatum, and 200 g of Elastrus paniculatus, is taken orally for rheumatism.
For dysentery and stomachache, 250 g of dried rhizome is taken with 500 g dried
stem bark of Holarrhena anti dysenterica and 100 g of dried Piper
nigrum, powdered and mixed with butter oil into pills about the size of a
pea. Two to three pills are taken dailyZO256. Hot water extract
of the rhizome is taken orally for amenorrheaZO063. The decoction is
taken orally for diabetesZO169, and paste mixed with salt is used externally as an antiveninZO148. The dried root
with leaves of Adhatoda vasica and Piper nigrum and Piper
longum, are powdered and administered orally to treat bronchitis. The powder is sometimes mixed with honeyZO119. The fresh rhizome
is taken orally with honey to treat ulcerative gingivitisZO119. Hot water extract
of the fresh rhizome is administered subcutaneously to treat filariasisZO193. The fresh rhizome
juice is administered to pregnant women just before childbirth to ease
delivery. The fresh rhizome is eaten for tuberculosis and throat painZO246 and for stomachacheZO248. For anemia, Tinospora
cordifolia, alone, or in combination with Strobilanthes auriculatus roots
and the dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale, is made into a
decoction and taken orallyZO248. For digestive complaints, the leaf juice of Piper betel and
leaf juice of Zingiber officinale are taken orally. A decoction of Andrographis
paniculata, Ocimum sanctum, and Zingiber officinale is taken orally
for malaria. Rhizome, made into a paste, is applied to the forehead for
headache. For toothache, black pepper and ginger are used as a tooth powder;
combined with charcoal, freshens the mouth. For the common cold, a decoction of
coffee prepared with black pepper and ginger is taken orally. To relieve
swellings and boils, a paste of Zingiber officinale rhizome and Santalum
album stem is applied to the affected areaZO248.
Indonesia. Hot water extract
of the rhizome is taken orally to aid in childbirthZO071. As an abortifacient,
the rhizome, in combination with cinnamon, Capsicum annuum, a piece of
black cane stalk pound with half of an unripe
pineapple and rag (rice, garlic, and Alpinia galanga, aromatics, and
spices such as cinnamon, ginger, Capsicum annuum), is diluted with water
and taken twice daily. The rhizome juice is taken orally for colic and used
externally in the form of a poultice for swelling of rheumatic areas and on
snakebiteZO241.
Japan. Fresh rhizome is
used externally to promote hair growthZO239.
Malaysia. The rhizome, mixed
with Piper nigrum and honey, is taken orally as an abortifacientZO064. Hot water extract
of the rhizome is administered orally after childbirth and as an abortifacientZO071.
Mauritius. Hot water extract
of the dried root is taken orally as an emmenagogueZO223.
Mexico. Decoction of the
entire plant is taken orally with honey as an emmenagogue and to soothe colicZO132. Hot water extract
of the rhizome is taken orally for stomachacheZO228.
Morocco. Rhizome is taken
orally as a calefacientZO160.
Nepal. Decoction of the
rhizome, mixed with Artemisia dubia, is taken orally as an antipyretic.
The juice is mixed with butter\ and massaged on the chest and throat to cure
cough. The juice is taken orally for throat infectionZO168. Decoction of the
rhizome, mixed with the Justicia adhatoda, is mixed in warm water and
salt and then taken orally twice a day for 2–3 days to treat abdominal painZO155.
Nicaragua. Decoction of the
root is taken orally by women during childbirth, as a digestive, and for coldsZO156. The rhizome is
taken orally for belly pain, fever, and gasZO151.
Nigeria. The rhizome is
taken orally as a blood purifier, febrifuge, carminative, and stimulant, and
for malaria, stomachache, headache, and indigestionZO102. Water extract of
the dried rhizome is taken orally to treat malariaZO097 and schistosomiasisZO224.
Oman. Infusion of the
rhizome is taken orally as an expectorant and for bronchitis. The infusion is
administered ophthalmically for cataractZO116.
Papua New Guinea. Fresh rhizome juice
is taken orally for colds and cough. The fresh rhizome is chewed for malaria,
stomach worms, and the temporary relief of toothacheZO191. The fresh rhizome
is taken orally for pneumonia, tuberculosis, fever, and rheumatism and
externally for topical ulcersZO254. Hot water extract of the dried root
is taken orally for stomach complaintsZO254. The chewed
rhizome and leaf are used externally to treat knee pain and swallowed to treat
coughZO134. The dried rhizome is chewed, and the juice applied externally
for migraine and to treat stingray stingsZO277. The juice is
taken orally to treat vomiting and stomachache. For head lice, the rhizome is
mixed with bark of Galbulimima belgraveana and leaves of Nicotiana
tabacum and the juice is applied externallyZO294.
Peru. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome is taken orally as a carminativeZO288 and contraceptiveZO289.
Philippines. Hot water extract
of the dried root is taken orally by pregnant women to minimize the pain of
early laborZO261.
Rodrigues Islands. Decoction of the
rhizome juice, mixed with Citrus aurantifolia, is taken orally for
pulmonary disorders. The juice, mixed with lemon juice, honey, and hot water
extract of Cymbopogon citratus, is taken orally for coldsZO153.
Saudi Arabia. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome is taken orally as a stomachic, a diuretic, a carminative,
and an antiemeticZO178,ZO184 and used externally as an antiseptic, anesthetic, and astringentZO178.
South Korea. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome is taken orally as an abortifacientZO264. Hot water extract
of the rhizome, together with Bupleurum falcatum, Scutellaria baicalensis,
Panax ginseng, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Zizyphus jujuba, and Pinellia
tuberosa, is taken orally for tonsillitis, otitis media, tuberculosis,
common cold, liver disorders, chills, fevers, and chest painsZO267.
Sudan. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome is taken orally for colds, pneumonia, and rheumatismZO227.
Tanzania. Rhizome is pound
with the root of Pteridium aquilinum, and the juice taken orally as an
aphrodisiac. Hot water extract of the rhizome is taken orally as a galactagogueZO069, ZO070.
Thailand. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome is taken orally as a carminativeZO211, ZO212, an antiemetic, an
anticolic, a hypnotic, a cardiotonicZO212, an emmenagogue,
and a stomachicZO213. The fresh rhizome is taken orally as an antiemetic and a
gastrointestinal sedativeZO158. Hot water extract of the fresh rhizome is taken orally for
fever, headache, and diarrhea and as an emmenagogue, a carminativeZO215, and an aromatic
stimulantZO216. The powdered fresh rhizome, together with cloves, are mixed
with water and rubbed on the body for the relief of rheumatismZO216.
Trinidad. Hot water extract
of the rhizome is taken orally for diabetesZO101,ZO103.
United States. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome is taken orally as a carminative in flatulent colic and
when a warming effect is neededZO304. Wine extract of the dried rhizome,
together with Viburnum opulus, Scutellaria lateriflora, Symplocarous
foetidus, and Syzygium aromaticum, is taken as an
antispasmodicZO304.
Venezuela. Hot water extract
of the rhizome is taken orally to stimulate the menstrual flowZO090.
Vietnam. Hot water extract
of the rhizome is taken orally as an emmenagogueZO066.
Yemen. Hot water extract
of the rhizome is taken orally as an aphrodisiac and is used as an aromatic stimulantZO234.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS (Ross, I. A. 2005)
(ppm
unless otherwise indicated)
Acetaldehyde: RhZO305
Acetic acid: RhZO295
Acetone: RhZO305
Aframodial: Sd 0.04%ZO082
Angelicoidenol-2-O--D-glucopyranoside:
Rh 14ZO084
Arginine:
TuZO247
Aromadendrene:
Rh EOZO195
Aromadendrene,
allo: Rh EO 0.14%ZO290
Asparagine:
Rh 0.05%ZO308
Aspartic
acid: Aer, TuZO247
Benzaldehyde:
RhZO295
Benzaldehyde,
3-phenyl: Rh EOZO195
Benzaldehyde,
4-phenyl: Rh EOZO195
Bisabolene:
Rh EOZO068
Bisabolene,
: Rh 17.2-30.0ZO131,ZO079, Rh EO
10.51%ZO140
Bisabolene,
: Rh EO 2.5%ZO122
Bisabolol,
: Rh EO 0.59%ZO290
Borneol:
Rh EO 1.8%ZO290
Borneol
acetate: Rh EO 0.21%ZO290
Borneol
methyl ethyl: RhZO144
Borneol,
(+): Rh EOZO306
Borneol,
5-hydroxy-O--D-glucopyranoside:
Rh 8.5ZO170
Borneol,
iso: RhZO144
Butyraldehyde,
N: RhZO305
Cadinene,
: Rh EOZO195
Cadinene,
: Rh EO 0.13%ZO290
Cadinol,
: Rh EOZO195
Caffeic
acid: RhZO226
Calamenene:
Rh EOZO195
Camphene:
Rh EO 12.6%ZO290
Camphene
hydrate: RhZO144
Camphor:
Rh EO 0.12%ZO290
Caprylic
acid: Rh EOZO306
Capsaicin:
RhZO311
Car-3-ene:
Rh EOZO219
Caryophyllene:
EOZO068
Caryophyllene,
: Rh EO 0.09%ZO290
Cedorol:
Rh EOZO195
Cedrol,
: Rh EOZO121
Chavicol:
Rh EOZO306
Chrysanthemin:
RhZO129
Cineol,
1-8: Rh EO 2.6-10%ZO290,ZO229
Cineol,
1-8, 2-hydroxy: RhZO295
Citral:
Rh EO 13.0%ZO067
Citronellal:
Rh EO 0.29%ZO290
Citronellol:
Rh EO 0.3-13.0%ZO290,ZO067
Citronellol
acetate: Rh EOZO121
Citronellyl
acetate: Rh EOZO195
Copaene,
: Rh EOZO293
Coumaric
acid, para: Rh 19ZO226
Cubebene,
: Rh EOZO121
Curcumene,
: Rh EO 1.94%ZO140
Curcumin:
RhZO130
Curcumin,
hexahydro: Rh 21.3ZO109
Curcumin,
hexahydrodemethyl: RhZO179
Cyclobutane,
cis-1-2-bis-(trans-3-4-dimethoxy
styryl):
Rh 13.9ZO081
Cyclohexene,
cis-3-(3-4-dimethoxy phenyl)-
4-(trans-3-4-dimethoxy
styryl): Rh 50.6ZO081
Cyclohexene,
trans-3-(2-4-5-trimethoxy
phenyl)-4-(trans-3-4-dimethoxy
styryl):
Rh 13.9ZO081
Cyclohexene,
trans-3-(3-4-dimethoxy phenyl)-
4-(trans-3-4-dimethoxy
styryl): Rh 55.8ZO081
Cymen-8-ol,
para: Rh EO 0.07%ZO290
Cymene,
para: Rh EO 2.6%ZO290
Cysteine:
AerZO247
Dec-trans-2-en-1-al:
RhZO144
Deca-3-5-diene,
3-6-epoxy-1-(hydroxy-3-
methoxy
phenyl): RhZO080
Decan-1-al:
RhZO144
Decane,
3(R)-5(S)-diacetoxy-1-(3-4-dimethoxy
phenyl):
RhZO077
Decane,
3(R)-5(S)-diacetoxy-1-(4-hydroxy-
3-methoxy
phenyl): Rh 41.8ZO077
Decane,
3(R)-acetoxy-5(S)-hydroxy-1-(4-
hydroxy-3-methoxy
phenyl): Rh 53.1ZO077
Decane,
5(S)-acetoxy-3(R)-hydroxy-1-(4-
hydroxy-3-methoxy
phenyl): Rh 15.8ZO077
Diethyl
sulfide: RhZO305
Dodec-trans-2-en-1-al:
RhZO144
Elemene,
: Rh EO 0.3%ZO290
Elemol:
Rh EO 0.38%ZO290
Essential
oil: Rh 0.08–0.21%ZO229
Ethyl
acetate: RhZO305
Ethyl
myristate: Rh EOZO195
Eudesmol,
: Rh EO 0.93%ZO290
Eudesmol,
: Rh EO 0.23%ZO290
Eugenol:
Rh EOZO121
Eugenol,
iso: RhZO144
Eugenol,
iso methyl ether: Rh EO 0.08%ZO290
Farnesal:
Rh EO 0.20%ZO290
Farnesene:
EOZO068
Farnesene,
: Rh EO 2.5%ZO290
Farnesene, trans-trans: RhZO201
Farnesene, :
Rt EOZO225
Farnesene,
trans: Rh EO 0.12%ZO290
Farnesol: Rh EOZO121
Fluoride: Rh 7.9ZO291
Furan,
2-(2-3-epoxy-3-methyl-butyl)-3-
methyl: RhZO144
Furan,
2-(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-3-methyl:
RhZO144
Furanogermenone: RhZO279
Furfural: Rh EOZO290
Galanolactone: RhZO117
Geranial: Rh EO
15.9-40.0% ZO290,ZO229
Geranic acid, cis:
RhZO295
Geranic acid, trans:
RhZO295
Geraniol: Rh EO
0.69%ZO290
Geraniol acetate:
Rh EO 0.20%ZO290
Geraniol, -D-glucopyranoside:
Rh 15ZO170
Geranium: Rh 87-169ZO232,ZO236
Gingediol, 10: RhZO313
Gingediol, 12: RhZO098
Gingediol, 12,
methyl: RhZO098
Gingediol, 6: Rh
21-30ZO109,ZO079
Gingediol, 6,
diacetate: Rh 3.3ZO109
Gingediol, 6,
diacetate methyl ether: RhZO313
Gingediol, 6,
methyl ether: RhZO313
Gingediol, 8: RhZO313
Gingerdiol, 6: RhZO130
Gingerdione,
10-dihydro: Rh 6.3ZO109
Gingerdione, 10: Rh
11ZO109
Gingerdione, 10,
dehydro: RhZO180
Gingerdione,
6-10-dehydro: RtZO214
Gingerdione, 6-10:
RtZO214
Gingerdione, 6: Rh
3.3-10ZO109,ZO079
Gingerdione, 6,
dehydro: Rh 25.3ZO109,ZO124
Gingerdione, 6,
dihydro: RhZO180
Gingerenone A: Rh
118-136ZO074,ZO075
Gingerenone B: Rh
4.7ZO074
Gingerenone B, iso:
Rh 4.7ZO074
Gingerenone C: Rh
14.2ZO074
Gingerglycolipid A:
Rh 13ZO078,ZO084
Gingerglycolipid B:
Rh 15ZO078
Gingerglycolipid C:
Rh 14ZO078,ZO084
Gingerol: RhZO278
Gingerol methyl
ether: RhZO313
Gingerol, 10: Rh
2.6-1862ZO109,ZO233
Gingerol, 10, methyl: RhZO271
Gingerol, 12: RhZO309
Gingerol, 12,
methyl: RhZO271
Gingerol, 14: RhZO271
Gingerol, 16: RhZO309
Gingerol, 4: RhEOZO310
Gingerol, 6: Rh
0.04%-0.71%ZO147,ZO233
Gingerol, 6, (+):
RtZO109
Gingerol, 6,
(S)(+): PlZO107
Gingerol, 6,
5-methoxy: RhZO135
Gingerol, 6,
acetyl: Rh 6.6ZO109
Gingerol, 6,
methyl: RhZO271
Gingerol, 7: RhZO309
Gingerol, 8: Rh
110-1069ZO079, ZO233
Gingerol, 8,
methyl: RhZO271
Gingerol, 9: RhZO309
Gingerol, dihydro:
Rt EOZO225
Gingerol, methyl:
EOZO068
Gingesulfonic acid,
6: Rh 13ZO084
Glanolactone: Rh
120ZO198
Glycine: Aer, TuZO247
Guaiol: Rh EOZO195
Hept-4-en-3-one,
7-(3-4-dihydroxy-phenyl)-
1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-phenyl):
Rh 1.4ZO076
Hept-5-en-1-al,
2-6-dimethyl: RhZO144
Hept-5-en-2-ol,
6-methyl: RhZO295
Hept-5-en-2-one,
6-methyl: Rh EOZO195
Heptan-2-ol: Rh
0.27%ZO290
Heptan-2-ol-
- D-glucopyranoside:
Rh 71.6ZO170
Heptan-2-one: Rh EO
ZO290
Heptan-3-one,
5-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-
5-dimethoxy-phenyl)-7-(4-hydroxy-3-
methoxy-phenyl): Rh
0.52ZO076
Heptan-3-one,
5-hydroxy-7-(4-hydroxy-3-
5-dimethoxy-phenyl)-1-(4-hydroxy-3-
methoxy-phenyl): Rh
5.2ZO076
Heptan-3-one,
5-hydroxy-7-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-
1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-phenyl):
Rh 5.2ZO076
Heptane,
1-5-epoxy-3-epi-hydroxy-1-3-4-
dihydroxy-5-methoxy-phenyl)-7-(4-hydroxy-
3-methoxy-phenyl):
RhZO083
Heptane,
1-5-epoxy-3-hydroxy-1-(3-4-
dihydroxy-5-methoxy-phenyl)-7-(4-hydroxy-
3-methoxy-phenyl): RhZO083
Heptane,
1-5-epoxy-3- hydroxy-1- (4-dihydroxy-
3-5-dimethoxy-phenyl)-7-(4-hydroxy-
3-methoxy-phenyl):
RhZO083
Heptane,
2(R)-5(S)-dihydroxy-1-7-bis- (4-hydroxy-
3-methoxy-phenyl):
Rh 0.00056%ZO076
Heptane, 2-2-4-trimethyl:
Rh EOZO195
Heptane,
3(S)-5(S)-diacetoxy-1-(4'-hydroxy-
3'-5'-dimethoxy-phenyl)-7-(4''-hydroxy-
3'-methoxy-phenyl):
Rh 20ZO079
Heptane,
3(S)-5(S)-diacetoxy-1-7-bis-(3-4-
dihydroxy-phenyl):
Rh 15.7ZO076
Heptane,
3(S)-5(S)-dihydroxy-1-(4'-hydroxy-
3'-5'-dimethoxy-phenyl)-7-(4'-hydroxy-
3'-methoxy-phenyl):
Rh 2ZO079
Heptane,
3(S)-5(S)-dihydroxy-1-7-bis-(4-hydroxy-
3-
methoxy-phenyl):Rh 0.00053%ZO076
Heptane,
3-5-diacetoxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-5-
dimethoxy-henyl)-7-(4-hydroxy-3-
methoxy-phenyl): Rh
30.3ZO075
Heptane,
3-5-diacetoxy-1-7-bis-(4-hydroxy-
3-methoxy-phenyl,
MeSO: Rh 40.8ZO075
Heptane,
3-5-diacetoxy-7-(3-4-dihydroxyphenyl)-
1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-phenyl):
Rh 3.5ZO076
Heptane,
3-acetoxy-1-5-epoxy-1- (3-4-dihydroxy-
5-methoxy-phenyl)-7-(4-hydroxy-3-
methoxy-phenyl): RhZO083
Heptane,
3-epi-acetoxy-1-5-epoxy-1-(3-4-
dihydroxy-5-methoxy-phenyl)-7-(4-hydroxy-
3-methoxy-phenyl):
RhZO083
Heptane, N:
RhZO305
Heptane-3(S)-diol,
1-7-bis- (4-hydroxy-3-
methoxy-phenyl): Rh
4ZO079
Heptenone, methyl:
Rh EOZO306
Hexan-1-al: Rh EO
700ZO290
Hexan-1-ol: RhZO295
Hexan-3-ol, cis:
Rh EOZO195
Himachalene, :
Rh EOZO195
Humulene epoxide 1:
RhZO145
Humulene epoxide 2:
RhZO145
Ionone, :
Rh EOZO195
Juniper camphor: Rh
EOZO195
Labda-trans-12-ene-15-16-dial,
8--17-epoxy:
RhZO126
Labda-trans-6(17)-12-diene-15-16-dial:
RhZO135
Lauric acid: Rh EO
900ZO290
Leucine: TuZO247
Leucine, iso: TuZO247
Limonene: Rh EO
2.1%ZO290
Linalool: Rh EO
1–3%ZO229
Linalool, oxide: RhZO295
Linalool,
propionate: Rh EOZO121
Linalool, trans,
oxide: Rh EOZO195
Linalool--D-glucopyranoside:
Rh 11.6ZO170
Melatonin: RhZO295
Mentha-1-5-dien-7-ol,
para: RhZO295
Mentha-2-8-dien-1-ol,
para: RhZO295
Mentha-1-5-dien-8-ol,
para: RhZO295
Menthan-3-ol,
1-8-epoxy-para-glucopyranoside:
Rh 5.8ZO170
Menthol acetate: Rh
EOZO195
Metha-1-8-dien-7-ol,
para: RhZO295
Methyl acetate: RhZO305
Methyl nonyl
ketone: Rh EOZO195
Muurolene, :
Rh EOZO195
Muurolene, :
Rh EO 0.91%ZO290
Myrcene: RhZO175, Rh EO 1.9%ZO290
Myrcene, :
Rh EOZO195
Myrtenal: Rh EO
0.06%ZO290
Neral: Rh EO
8.10%-26.0%ZO290,ZO229
Nerol: Rh EOZO219
Nerol, oxide: RhZO295
Nerol--D-glucopyranoside:
Rh 0.2ZO170
Nerolidol: Rh EOZO121, RhZO295
Nerolidol, 9-oxo:
Rh EOZO195
Nerolidol, cis:
Rh EOZO140
Nerolidol, trans:
Rh EO 0.70%ZO290
Nonal-1-al: RhZO144
Nonal-2-ol: RhZO295, Rh EO 0.2%ZO290
Nonane, N:
RhZO305
Nonanol, N:
RhZO305
Nonanone, N:
Rh EOZO229
Nonyl aldehyde: Rh
EOZO306
Octan-1-ol acetate:
RhZO144
Oct-trans-2-en-1-al:
RhZO144
Octa-2-6-diene-1-8-diol,
2-6-dimethyl: RhZO295
Octa-3-7-diene-1-6-diol,
2-6-dimethyl: RhZO295
Octa-3-cis-6-dien-1-al,
3-7-dimethyl: RhZO144
Octa-3-trans-6-dien-1-al,
3-7-dimethyl: RhZO144
Octa-trans-2-cis-6-dien-1-ol,
3-7-dimethyl-
8-hydroxy, -D-glucopyranoside:
Rh 5.2ZO170
Octa-trans-2-trans-6-dien-1-ol,
3-7-dimethyl-
8-hydroxy, -D-glucopyranoside:
Rh 10.1ZO170
Octan-1-al: Rh EO
800ZO290
Octan-2-ol: RhZO295
Octane, N:
RhZO305
Octanol, N:
RhZO295
Octen-2-al, trans:
Rh EOZO195
Oxalic acid: Rt
0.50%ZO312
Paradol: RhZO313
Paradol, 6: RhZO177
Patchouli alcohol:
Rh EOZO195
Pentan-2-ol: RhZO295
Perilla aldehyde:
Rh EOZO140
Perillen: Rh EOZO195
Perillene: RH EOZO114
Phellandrene, :
Rh EO 0.40%ZO290
Phellandrene, :
Rh EO 5.70%ZO290
Pin-2-en-5-ol, RhZO144
Pinene, :
Rh EO 3.90%ZO290
Pinene, :
Rh EO 0.53%ZO290
Pipecolic acid: Rh
0.032%ZO308
Propanol, N:
RhZO305
Propionaldehyde: RhZO305
Protease: RhZO125
Pulegole, iso, neo:
Rh EOZO195
Rose oxide, cis:
RhZO144
Rose oxide, trans:
RhZO144
Rosefuran: Rh EO
0.18%ZO290
Sabinene: RhZO305
Santalol, :
Rh EO 16.20%ZO140
Selina-3-7(11)-diene:
Rh EO 0.13%ZO290
Selinen-4-ol, cis:
RhZO295
Selinene, :
Rh EOZO195
Selinene, :
Rh EOZO195
Serine: Aer, Tu ZO247
Sesquiabinene, cis,
hydrate: Rh EOZO195
Sesquiphellandrene:
Rh EOZO195
Sesquiphellandrene,
: Rh EOZO122
Sesquiphellandrol, :
RhZO175
Sesquiphellandrol, ,
cis: Rh EOZO088
Sesquiphellandrol, ,
trans: Rh EO 0.72%ZO290
Sesquisabinene, cis,
hydrate: RhZO089
Sequiterpene
hydrocarbon: Rh EOZO195
Sesquithujene: RhZO089
Shikimic acid: LfZO086
Shogaol: RhZO230
Shogaol, 10: Rh
73.5ZO147
Shogaol, 10, cis:
RhZO269
Shogaol, 10,
dehydro: Rh 0.031ZO085
Shogaol, 10,
methyl, anti: RhZO269
Shogaol, 10,
methyl, syn: RhZO269
Shogaol, 10, trans:
RhZO269
Shogaol, 12, cis:
RhZO269
Shogaol, 12, trans:
RhZO269
Shogaol, 6: Rh 278.5-400ZO147,ZO198
Shogaol, 6, cis:
RhZO269
Shogaol, 6, methyl:
RhZO098
Shogaol, 6, methyl,
anti: RhZO269
Shogaol, 6, methyl,
syn: RhZO269
Shogaol, 6, trans:
RhZO269
Shogaol, 8: Rh
48-130ZO147
Shogaol, 8, cis:
RhZO269
Shogaol, 8,
dehydro: Rh 0.046ZO085
Shogaol, 8, methyl,
anti: RhZO269
Shogaol, 8, methyl,
syn: RhZO269
Shogaol, 8, trans:
RhZO269
Starch: Rh 12.3%ZO231
Sulfide, ethyl
iso-propyl: RhZO305
Sulfide, methyl
allyl: RhZO305
Terpine, 1-8,
hydrate: RhZO295
Terpinen-4-ol: RhZO144
Terpinene, :
Rh EO 0.07%ZO290
Terpinene, :
Rh EOZO195
Terpineol, 4: RhZO295
Terpineol, :
Rh EO1.00%ZO290
Terpinolene: Rh EO
0.18%ZO290
Threonine: Aer, TuZO247
Thujone, :
Rh EOZO195
Tricyclene: Rh EO
0.23%ZO290
Undecan-2-ol: Rh EO
0.05%ZO290
Undecan-2-one: Rh
EOZO121
Undecanone, N:
Rh EOZO229
Uridine: Rh 11ZO084
Valeraldehyde, iso:
RhZO305
Valine: Aer, TuZO247
Xanthorrhizol: Rh
EO 0.10%ZO290
Ylangene, :
RhZO295
Zerumbodienone: RhZO145
Zingerberone: EOZO068
Zingerone: RhZO176, Rt EOZO225
Zingibenene, :
Rh EO 9.2%ZO290
Zingiberene: Rh 0.06%ZO181, Rt EOZO087
Zingiberene, :
Rh EO 44.26%ZO140
Zingiberenol: RhZO089
Zingiberine: RtZO173
Zingiberol: Rh EO
0.29%ZO140
Zingiberone: Rh 0.04%ZO307
CONSTITUENTS (Barnes, J. A et
al., 2007)
The following is
compiled from several sources, including Reference 1 and General References G2
and G6.
•
Carbohydrates Starch (major
constituent, up to 50%).
•
Lipids 6–8%. Free fatty
acids (e.g. palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, caprylic acid, capric acid,
lauric acid, myristic acid, pentadecanoic acid, heptadecanoic acid, stearic
acid, linolenic acid, arachidic acid);(2) triglycerides, phosphatidic acid,
lecithins; gingerglycolipids A, B and C.(3)
•
Oleo-resin Gingerol
homologues (major, about 33%) including derivatives with a methyl
side-chain,(4) shogaol homologues (dehydration products of gingerols),
zingerone (degradation product of gingerols), 1-dehydrogingerdione,(5)
6-gingesulfonic acid(3) and volatile oils.
•
Volatile oils 1–3%. Complex,
predominately hydrocarbons. b- Bisabolene and zingiberene (major); other
sesquiterpenes include zingiberol, zingiberenol, ar-curcumene,
b-sesquiphellandrene, bsesquiphellandrol (cis and trans); numerous monoterpene
hydrocarbons, alcohols and aldehydes (e.g. phellandrene, camphene, geraniol,
neral, linalool, d-nerol).
•
Other constituents Amino acids (e.g.
arginine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glycine, isoleucine, leucine, serine,
threonine and valine), protein (about 9%), resins, diterpenes
(galanolactone),(6) vitamins (especially nicotinic acid (niacin) and vitamin
A), minerals.(2) The material contains not less than 4.5% of alcohol (90%)-
soluble extractive and not less than 10% of water-soluble extractive.(G15)
PRODUCT
AVAILABILITY (Linda, S R. 2010)
Capsules,
dried root, extract, fresh root, powder, tablets, tea, tincture
DOSAGES (Linda,
S R. 2010)
Ginger may be standardized to its volatile oil (4%) or
essential oil (8%).
General Use
• Adult PO dried ginger
capsules: 1 g/day (McCaleb et al, 2000)
• Adult PO dried root
equivalent: 500 mg bid-qid (Mills, Bone, 2000)
• Adult PO fl uid extract:
0.7-2 ml/day (1:2 dilution) (Mills, Bone, 2000)
• Adult PO fresh root
equivalent: 500-1000 mg tid (Mills, Bone, 2000)
• Adult PO tablets/caps: 500 mg
bid-qid (Mills, Bone, 2000)
•
Adult PO tincture: 1.7-5 ml/day (1:5 dilution) (Mills, Bone, 2000)
Migraine
•
Adult PO dried ginger: 500 mg qid
•
Adult PO extract: 100-200 mg, standardized to 20% ginerol and shogol
•
Adult PO fresh ginger: 10 g/day (1⁄4-inch slice) (Murray, Pizzorno, 1998)
Motion Sickness and Morning
Sickness Prevention
•
Adult PO extract: 100-200 mg, standardized to 20% ginerol and shogol
•
Adult PO powder: 1-2 g 1⁄2-1 hr before traveling or upon arising
•
Adult PO tea, dried root: 11⁄2 tsp ground dried root in 1 cup water, boil 5-10
min, drink prn
•
Adult PO tea, fresh root: 1 tsp fresh root in 1 cup water, infuse 5 min, drink
prn
Rheumatoid Arthritis
•
Adult PO extract: 100-200 mg, standardized to 20% ginerol and shogol (Murray, Pizzorno,
1998)
•
Adult PO fresh ginger: 8-10 g/day (Murray, Pizzorno, 1998)
Sore Throat
•
Adult PO fresh root tea: 1 tsp fresh root in 1 cup water, infuse 5 min, gargle
prn (Murray, Pizzorno, 1998)
General Use (Pediatric)
•
Child PO ginger root tea: 1⁄4-1 cup prn (Romm, 2000)
•
Child PO tincture: 5-25 drops in water prn (Romm, 2000)
DOSAGE/PREPARATIONS
(Longe, J. L. 2005)
Ginger is used in teas, ginger
ale, ginger beer, capsules, broths, and as a spice when cooking Asian and
Jamaican dishes. Ginger tea for coughs, nausea, digestion, and arthritis can be
made by adding 2 tsp (10 ml) of freshly grated root or powdered root to 1 cup
(250 ml) of boiling water and steeping for 10 minutes. A cup of the ginger tea,
while still warm, should be sipped every 2- 2.5 hours.
A compress for arthritic pain can
be made by grating an unpeeled ginger root in a clockwise direction, then tying
it in a moistened muslin cloth, dropping it in a pot of boiling water, and
letting it simmer. When the broth is removed from the stove, a cotton cloth is
dipped into the broth and the excess moisture squeezed into the pot. While
lying flat on the back, the person places the cloth on the aching body part.
The broth can also be added to the bath for soaking.
Ginger comes in 250–500 mg
capsules of dried ginger root. One to 2 grams of dry powered ginger equals about
1/3 oz of fresh ginger (10 g). A cup of ginger tea contains 250 mg; an 8 oz
glass of ginger ale contains 1,000 mg, and a spiced dish contains 500 mg. To
prevent motion sickness, German health authorities recommend 2–4 g of powdered
ginger daily. Another recommended dose is 250 mg four to six times a day.
To bring more blood circulation
to arthritic joints, one to two capsules (250 mg each) per day are recommended initially.
If results are good, the amount can be increased to six per day, taken between
meals.
Ginger can be taken with onions
and garlic. These agents work in harmony to stimulate the pancreas and decrease
cholesterol.
As a blood thinner, two 250 mg
capsules of ginger can be taken between meals up to three times a day.
DOSAGE
(Barnes, J et al., 2007)
Dosages
for oral administration (adults) for traditional uses recommended in standard
herbal reference texts are given below.
Anti-emetic
Powdered
rhizome Single dose of 1–2 g,(G6) 30 minutes before travel for prevention of
motion sickness,(G52) or 0.5 g, two to four times daily.(G63)
Other uses
Powdered
rhizome 0.25–1 g, three times daily.(G6)
Tincture
1.5–3mL (1 : 5) three times daily,(G6) 1.7–5mL daily.(G50)
DOSAGE
AND DURATION OF USE (Kraft and Hobbs. 2004 )
–
Internal use: Daily dose: 2–4
g dried or fresh rhizome.
•
Tea:
Simmer 0.5–1 g of the dried or fresh, sliced
or coarsely powdered rhizome in a covered pot for 15 minutes, then pass through
a tea strainer (1 teaspoon = ca. 3 g drug).
•
As
an antiemetic: Take 2 g of the freshly powdered rhizome in fluids.
•
One
dose equals 0.3–1.5 g herb.
–
External use: A compress of warm ginger tea for contusions and arthritis pain
(see p. 309).
HERE IS WHAT I
RECOMMEND (Al
Sears. 2016)
Here are some
ways to get your daily doses:
•
Stir
fry food with it: It’ll add an invigorating taste to any meat
and vegetable dish. Sprinkle some grated ginger on top for even more great
flavor.
•
Supplement:
Most
pharmacies or health food stores sell ginger powder in pills or capsules. Look
for an extract with 5% gingerols.
I
like to take my ginger supplement in liquid form.
You
can also:
•
Use
a ginger compress on painful areas: It’ll stimulate blood flow and
ease achy joints.
•
Use
it to relieve heartburn: Add one-half teaspoon of freshly
grated ginger root to a cup of hot water. Let the ginger steep for 10 minutes.
Strain the ginger and drink.
•
Soothe
a stomach ache: Drink
ginger tea, or ginger ale (made with real ginger), to sooth an upset stomach.
•
Antiviral: Ginger is also an
antiviral and can help you recover from viral infections.
Antiviral: Ginger is also an
antiviral and can help you recover from viral infections.
Lelir makes a simple
tea from ginger that’s helpful for your stomach and to cure a headache. It’s
refreshing and easy to prepare.
•
For each serving, peel about 1 inch of fresh ginger
root.
•
Crush the peeled root with a mortar and pestle.
•
Place the crushed root in a cup and add 8 oz of hot
water.
•
Steep until cool enough to drink, then strain off
the liquid.
•
Drink
hot or cold, adding honey to taste.
Here’s a ginger tea recipe I use:
•
Boil 4 cups of water in a saucepan.
•
Peel a 2-inch piece of fresh ginger root and slice
it into thin slices.
•
Add the ginger to the boiling water.
•
Cover it, reduce the heat, and let it simmer for
15-20 minutes.
•
Strain
the tea. Add honey and lemon.
PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES AND CLINICAL TRIALS
(Ross, I. A. 2005)
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone induction. Dried rhizome, in a mixture of 7 g Bupleurum falcatum, 5 g Pinellia
ternata, 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis, 4 g Zingiber officinale, 3
g Zizyphus inermis, 3 g Panax ginseng, and 2 g Glycyrrhiza
glabra, increased plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) level
in plasma relative to controls. The increase was not found in
adrenalectomized or dexamethasone-treated animalsZO283.
Acyl-coenzyme A
cholesterol acyltransferase inhibition. Decoction of the dried rhizome,
administered intragastrically to mice at a dose of 1.2 g/kg, inhibited
the incorporation of oleic acid into cholesteryl oleate. The
study was conducted with prescription know as shosaikoto, which consists
of Bupleurum falcatum Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria
baicalensis Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Pinellia ternata (Tu),
Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Panax ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza
glabra (Rh)ZO111.
Alanine
aminotransferase inhibition. Decoction of dried rhizome, taken orally by human adults of both
sexes at a dose of 7.5 g/day for 6 months, was active on 80 patients with
hepatitis B antigen-positive chronic hepatitis. The study was conducted with a
prescription that consists of B.upleurum falcatum Bupleurum falcatum (Rt),
Scutellaria baicalensis Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Pinellia
ternata (Tu), Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Panax ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza
glabra (Rh)ZO123.
Allergenic effect. A food industry
worker developed asthma in inhalation of dust from spices. Skin prick test from
ginger was strongly positive. With radioallergosorbent test (RAST), specific
immunoglobulin (Ig) E antibodies could be demonstrated in the serum. Leukocytes
from a normal donor, after passive sensitization with serum from the patient,
released a substantial (50%) amount of histamine on challenge with
ginger indicating an IgE-mediated allergy toward gingerZO058.
Analgesic activity.
Ethanol
(80%) extract of the rhizome, administered intragastrically to rats at a dose
of 100 mg/kg, was inactive vs writhing-induced by acetic acid injectionZO292. Hydroalcoholic
extract of the dried rhizome, administered intragastrically to mice at a dose
of 200 mg/kg, was active vs hot-plate method, tail flick response to radiant
heat, and capsaicin-induced algesia and produced weak activity vs acetic
acidinduced writhing and formalin-induced algesiaZO093. Rhizome juice,
administered intragastrically to mice at a dose of 199.8 mg/animal, was active
vs tail flick response to radiant heat. The activity produced was equivalent to
10 mg/kg body weight of aspirinZO110. Decoction of the dried rhizome,
administered intragastrically to mice at a dose of 1.2 g/kg on days 1–7, was
active vs hot-plate method. A dose of 300 mg/kg on days 1–8 was active vs cold
stress-induced hyperalgesia, and a dose of 100 mg/kg on days 1–22 was active vs
adjuvant-induced hyperalgesia. A mixture of Cinnamomum cassia (Bk), Zingiber
officinale (Rz), Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rt), Zizyphus jujuba (Fr),
Ephedra sinica (St), Asarum species (Rt), and Aconitum species
(Rt) was usedZO199. Methanol (50%) extract of the rhizome, administered
subcutaneously to mice at a dose of 10 g/kg, was active vs inhibition of acetic
acidinduced writhing and inactive vs hot-plate method. A dose of 3 g/kg was
inactive vs inhibition of acetic acid-induced writhingZO237. Water extract of
the dried rhizome, in combination with Bupleurum falcatum, Scutellaria
baicalensis, Paeonia alba, Rheum tanguticum, Citrus aurantium, Pinellia
ternata, and Zizyphus inermis, administered by gastric intubation
to mice at a dose of 200 mg/kg, was active vs acetic acid-induced writhing and
pressure pain threshold testZO323.
Anesthetic
activity. Hot water extract of the rhizome, at a concentration of 1%, was active
on the sciatic nerveZO220.
Angiotensin-ll
inhibition. Methanol extract of the rhizome, at a concentration of 200 g/mL,
was inactive on rat liver membraneZO324.
Anthelmintic
activity. Saline extract of the dried rhizome, at a concentration of 2.5%,
was 100% effective on Anisakis species larvaeZO143.
Anti-5-hydroxytryptamine
effects. Galanolactone, a diterpenoid and one of the active constituents
of ginger, was investigated on the guinea pig ileum, rat stomach fundus, and
rabbit aortic strips. In the guinea pig ileum, galanolactone inhibited
contractile responses to 5-hydroxytryptamine with a pIC50 value of 4.93. The
concentrationresponse curve of 5-hydroxytryptamine was shown as a biphasic
curve, and galanolactone produced a selective shift to the right of the second
phase. In the same preparations, the pIC50 value of
galanolactone against the response to carbamylcholine was 4.45. The inhibitory
effect of galanolactone on the 5-hydroxytryptamine responses in the stomach
fundus and aortic strips was less than that in the ileum. In addition, in the
thoracic aorta precontracted with 50 mM K+, the relaxing
effect of galanolactone was approx 10% of that of papaverineZO039.
Anti-allergenic
activity. Hot water extract of the of the dried rhizome, administered by
gastric intubation to mice at a dose of 100 mg/kg, was inactive vs type IV
reaction with contact dermatitis induced by picryl chloride and type I reaction
induced by antidinitrophenylated ascaris-IgE serum in 48 hours homologous PCA
in rats. Dosing was immediately before and 16 hours after challenge. The
extract, in a mixture of Pinellia ternata (Tu), Bupleurum falcatum (Rt),
Pachyma hoelen (Rt), Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Panax
ginseng (Rt), Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rt), Zizyphus vulgaris (Fr),
Magnolia officinalis (Bk), and Perilla frutescens (Pl) in ratios
9:4:3:2:1.5:1.5:1.5:1.5:1.5:1, was active vs type IV reaction with contact
dermatitis induced by picryl chloride and inactive vs type I reaction induced
by antidinitrophenylated ascaris-IgE serum in 48 hours homologous passive
cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) in rats. The results were significant to p <
0.05 level. A mixture of Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Pinellia ternata
(Tu), Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Panax ginseng (Rt), Glycyrrhiza
glabra (Rt), Zizyphus vulgaris (Fr), and Zizyphus bulgaris (Rh)
(8:8:3:3:3:3:1), was inactive vs type IV reaction with contact dermatitis
induced by picryl chloride and active vs type I reaction induced by
antidinitrophenylated ascaris- IgE serum in 48 hours homologous PCA in ratsZO240.
Anti-amoebic
activity. Ethanol (80%) extract of the dried rhizome was inactive on Entamoeba
histolytica, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) greater than 1 mg/ mLZO136. The extract,
administered intragastrically to male hamsters at a dose of 800 mg/kg, was
active vs experimentally induced hepatic amebiasisZO105. A dose of 250
mg/kg, administered intragastrically to rats on days 1–5, produced weak
activity and a dose of 500 mg/kg was activeZO136.
Anti-atherosclerotic
activity. Ethanol (50%) extract of the dried rhizome, administered
intragastrically to male rabbits at a dose of 500 mg/kg, reduced atherogenic
index from 4.7 to 1.2 on the aortaZO091.
Antibacterial
activity. Decoction of the dried entire plant, on agar plate, was inactive
on Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus, and Staphylococcus
epidermidis; MIC 125 mg/mL. Bacillus subtilis, Bordetella
bronchiseptica, Sarcina lutea, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa;
MIC 250 mg/mL. The decoction produced weak activity on Bacillus cereus and
Micrococcus flavus; MIC 31.25 mg/mLZO287. The essential
oil, on agar plate at room temperature, was active on Lactobacillus
acidophilus and inactive at 37C. The treatment was inactive on Bacillus
cereus. No difference was observed in antibacterial activity
at room temperature (25–30oC) or at 37oC. Acetone
extract of the dried leaf, on agar plate, was active on Escherichia
coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella B, Salmonella typhi, Sarcina
lutea, and Shigella flexneri and inactive on Salmonella newport,
Serratia marcescens, Staphylococcus albus, and Staphylococcus aureus. Ethanol
(95%) extract of the dried leaf on agar plate was inactive on Escherichia
coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella B, Salmonella newport,
Salmonella typhi, Sarcina lutea, Serratia marcescens, Shigella flexneri,
Staphylococcus albus, and Staphylococcus aureus. The water extract
was active on Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Shigella
flexneri and inactive on Salmonella B, Salmonella newport,
Salmonella typhi, Sarcinia lutea, Serratia marcescens, Staphylococcus
albus, and Staphylococcus aureusZO296. The leaf essential
oil was active on Staphylococcus aureus and inactive on Escherichia
coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosaZO222. Ethanol (80%)
extract of the rhizome, on agar plate at a concentration of 50 g/disc
was active on Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli (strains
7075 and BB), Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella
typhi (strain H), Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis,
and Staphylococcus haemolyticusZO292. Decoction of the
rhizome, on agar plate, was inactive on Streptococcus mutans, MIC 250
mg/mLZO189. Water extract of the rhizome, on agar plate at a
concentration of 5 mg/mL, was inactive on Helicobacter pyloriZO167. Powdered-dried
rhizome, in broth culture at a concentration of 4.5%, was inactive on Yersinia
enteroliticaZO325. Ethanol (90%) extract of the dried rhizome, on agar plate at a
concentration of 500 mg/disc, produced weak activity on Bacillus subtilis,
Escherichia coli, Streptococcus aureus, and Streptococcus faecalisZO318. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome, on agar plate at a concentration of 50 mg/disc, was
inactive on Salmonella typhimurium TA100 and TA98ZO326.
Antibody formation
enhancement. Decoction of the dried rhizome, in cell culture at a
concentration of 100 g/mL, was active. Peripheral lymphocytes from
eight patients with chronic active hepatitis, four with hepatits B e antigen
(HbeAg) and four with anti-Hbe, were cultured. Anti-hepatits B cove (HBc) and
anti-Hbe antibodies produced by HbcAg
stimulation were enhanced by the treatment, which consisted of Zingiber
officinale (Rh), Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria
baicalensis (Rt), P. ternata (Tu), Zizyphus jujuba (Fr),
Panax ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rh)ZO108. The decoction was
also active on peripheral blood monocytes from healthy adults treated with
pokeweed mitogen. The treatment enhanced plaque cell formation in response to
sheep red blood cellsZO123.
Anticathartic
effect. Acetone extract of ginger, administered orally to rats at a dose
of 75 mg/kg, significantly inhibited 5-hydroxytryptamine- induced diarrhea. To
clarify the active constituents responsible, extract was fractionated into four
fractions by silica gel chromatography. Fractions two and three, which were
effective,were further purified and [6]-shogaol, [6]-dehydrogingerdione, and
[8]- and [10]-gingerol had an anticathartic action. [6]-shogaol was more potent
than [6]-dehydrogingerdione and [8]- and [10]-gingerolZO041.
Anticholesterolemic
activity. Ginger, administered orally to rats, significantly elevated the
activity of hepatic cholesterol-7-hydroxylase, the rate-limiting
enzyme of bile acid biosynthesis. The results indicated that ginger could
stimulate the conversion of cholesterol to bile acids, an important pathway of
elimination of cholesterol from the bodyZO040. Standardized
ginger extracts were evaluated for their effects on the development of
atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E (apo E)-deficient mice, in relation to
plasma cholesterol levels and resistance of the low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
to oxidation and aggregation. Sixty apo E-deficient mice, 6 weeks of age, were
divided into three groups of 20 each and administered via the drinking water
the following treatment for 10 weeks: group 1, placebo (control group); 1.1%
alcohol; group 2, 25 g of ginger extract in 1.1% alcohol; and group
3, 250 g of ginger extract in 1.1% alcohol. Aortic atherosclerotic
lesion areas were reduced 44% (p < 0.01) in mice that consumed 250 g
of extract/day. It also resulted in reductions (p < 0.01) in plasma
triglycerides and cholesterol by 27 and 29%, respectively, in very low-density
lipoprotein (VLDL) by 36 and 53%, respectively, and in LDL by 58 and 33%,
respectively. These results were associated with a 76% reduction in cellular
cholesterol biosynthesis rate in peritoneal macrophages derived from the apo
E-deficient mice that consumed the high dose. Peritoneal macrophages harvested
from apo E-deficient mice after consumption of 25 or 250 g of the
extract daily had a lower (p < 0.01) capacity to oxidize LDL (45 and
60%, respectively) and to take up and degrade oxidized LDL (43 and 47%,
respectively). Consumption of 250 g of ginger also reduced (p <
0.01) the basal level of LDL-associated lipid peroxides by 62%. In parallel, a
33% inhibition (p < 0.01) in LDL aggregation (induced by vortexing)
was obtainedZO015. Ethanol (50%) extract of the dried rhizome, administered
intragastrically to male rabbits at a dose of 500 mg/kg, reduced total
cholesterol and LDL cholesterol in cholesterol-fed animalsZO091.
Anticonvulsant
activity. Hot water extract of the rhizome, at a concentration of 0.15%,
was active vs inhibition of Metrazol-induced bursting of snail neuronsZO218. Decoction of the
dried rhizome, taken orally by human adults at a concentration of 4 g/person,
was active. The study involved 24 patients with frequent uncontrollable
epileptic seizures. The treatment resulted in six cases that were well
controlled (no seizure 10 months), 13 that were improved (marked decrease or
grand mal was eliminated), and three that showed no effect. No patients had
their condition worsen. The treatment also contained Bulleurum falcatum (Rt),
Cinnamomum cassia (Bk), Paeonia albiflora (Rt), Glycyrrhiza
glabra var. glandulifera (Rt), Panax ginseng (Rt), Scutellaria
baicalensis (Rt), Pinellia ternata (Tu), and Zizyphus jujuba
(Fr)ZO249. Water extract of the dried rhizome, administered by gastric
intubation to mice at a dose of 4 g/kg, was active vs supramaximal
electroshock-induced convulsions and audiogenic seizures and inactive vs
strychnine- and pentlenetetrazide-induced convulsions. The results significant
were at p < 0.05 level. The extract was used in combination with Glycyrrhiza
glabra, Panax ginseng, Scutellaria baicalensis, Zizyphus jujuba,
Pinellia ternata, Bulleurum falcatum, Cinnamomum cassia, and Paeonia
albifloraZO250. Decoction of Zingiber officinale, Glycyrrhiza glabra,
Panax ginseng, Scutellaria baicalensis, Zizyphus jujuba, Pinellia ternata,
Bupleurum falcatum, Cinnamomum cassia, and Paeonia albiflora,
administered intragastrically to mice at a dose of 1 mg/kgZO208 and intravenously
to rats at a dose of 1 mg/kgZO210, was active vs metrazole-induced
convulsions. Water extract of Bupleurum falcatum, Scutellaria baicalensis,
Paeonia alba, Rheum tanguticum, Citrus aurantium, Pinellia ternata,
Zingiber officinale, and Zizyphus inermis, administered by gastric
intubation to mice at a dose of 800 mg/kg, was inactive vs strychnine-and
picrotoxin-induced convulsions and active vs caffeine-induced convulsionsZO323.
Anticrustacean
activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the dried rhizome was active on Artemia
salina, lethal dose (LD)50 100 g/mLZO327.
Antidiarrheal
activity. Decoction of the dried rhizome, taken orally by children, was
active. Infantile diarrhea was treated with kexieding capsule composed of 5
plant materials, including roasted ginger, clove, and fruit peel of Punica
granatum. Of the 234 infants and 71 children treated, 281 (92%) were cured
in 1–3 days and 9 (3%) were significantly improved. The total effective rate
was 95%ZO206. Water extract of the dried rhizome, administered by gastric
intubation to mice at a dose of 0.5 mg/g, was active vs castor oil-induced
diarrheaZO328.
Anti-edema
activity. Methanol extract of the rhizome, applied topically to mice at a
dose of 2 mg/ear, was active vs 12-Otetradecanoyl- 13-acetate-induced
ear inflammation. The inhibition ratio was nineZO118.
Anti-emetic effect.
Patients
scheduled to have gynecological diagnostic laparoscopy as day cases were
randomly allocated into placebo, droperidol, ginger, and ginger plus droperidol
groups to receive either 2 g of ginger or 1.25 mg droperidol or both. There
were no significant differences in the incidences of postoperative nausea,
which were 32, 20, 22, and 33%; and vomiting, which were 35, 15, 25, and 25% in
the four groups, respectivelyZO025. In a double-blind, randomized,
controlled trial in 108 ASA 1 or 2 patients undergoing gynecological
laparoscopic surgery under general anesthesia, the efficacy of ginger for the
prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting was studied. The patients
received oral placebo, ginger BP 0.5 g, or ginger BP 1 g, all with oral
diazepam premedication, 1 hour before surgery and were assessed at 3 hours
postoperatively. The incidence of nausea and vomiting increased slightly but
not significantly with increasing dose of ginger. The incidence of moderate or
severe nausea was 22, 33, and 36%, whereas the incidence of vomiting was 17,
14, and 31% in groups receiving 0.5 and 1 g ginger, respectivelyZO028. Water extract of the
dried rhizome, administered intragastrically to male rats at a dose of 50
mg/kg, was active. The dose blocked the lithium chloride-induced conditioned
place aversion, indicating antiemetic activity comparable with metoclopramide.
A mixture of 50% ginger, 20% gingko, and 30% water was usedZO142. Powdered-dried
rhizome, taken orally by human adults at a dose of 1 g/person, was active in a double-blind,
placebocontrolled study on nausea in 120 patients undergoing gynecological
laparoscopic same-day surgeryZO120. Rhizome, administered orally to
female human adults at a dose of 1 g/day, was active in a crossover study in 27
women suffering from hyperemesis gravidarum. The patients received 250 mg of
ginger powder or placebo four times daily for 4 days. Sickness was assessed
using a symptom score. The results suggested a significantly (p <
0.05) greater symptomatic benefit after administration of ginger compared with
placebo. In a randomized, double-blind controlled clinical study, 60 women
received 1 g of rhizome per day. The patients were allocated randomly to
receive ginger, 10 mg metoclopramide, or placebo as a single dose given with
preoperative medication. The severity of postoperative nausea was assessed on a
four-point scale. The incidence of nausea during the first 24 hours after
surgery was 28%, 30%, and 51% in the ginger, metoclopramide, and placebo, respectively.
A statistically significant (p < 0.05) difference in favor of ginger
compared with placebo was reported for the total number of incidents of nausea.
In a study of 120 patients, the rhizome, metoclopramide, and placebo were given
1 hour before surgery and the incidence of nausea and vomiting was 21%, 27%,
and 41% in the ginger, metoclopramide, and placebo groups, respectively. Significantly
fewer patients with nausea were reported in the ginger group compared with the
placebo groupZO072. The rhizome, taken orally by pregnant human adults at a dose
of 1 g/day in a double-blind randomized, crossover study, was more effective
than placebo in diminishing or eliminating emesis during pregnancyZO329. Acetone extract
of the dried rhizome, administered intragastrically to dogs of both sexes at a
dose of 200 mg/kg, was active vs cisplatin-induced emesis and inactive vs apomorphine-induced
emesis. The water extract was inactive vs cisplatin-induced emesisZO330.
Antifungal
activity. 6-Dehydrozingerone isolated by steam distillation from fresh
rhizome exhibited antifungal activity against Rhizoctonia solani,
effective concentration (EC)50 86.49 mg/LZO005. The essential
oil, on agar plate, was active on Aspergillus niger at 37oC
and inactive at room temperature. The undiluted essential oil was active on Alternaria
species, Aspergillus candidus, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus
fumigatus, Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus niger, Cladosporium herbarium,
Cunninghamella echinulata, Helminthosporium sacchari, Microsporum gypseum,
Mucor mucedo, Penicillium digitatum, Rhizopus nigricans, Trichophyton rubrum, and
Trichothecium roseum and inactive on Fusarium oxysporumZO113. Acetone and
ethanol (95%) extracts of the dried leaf, on agar plate at a concentration of
50%, were active on Neurospora crassa. The water extract, at a concentration
of 50%, was inactiveZO252.
Antigen expression.
Decoction
of the rhizome, in cell culture at a concentration of 100 g/mL, was
active on lymphocytes from patients who were human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV)-positive asymptomatic and had acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
The study was conducted with a prescription that contained Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Zingiber
officinale (Rh), Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Pinellia ternata(Tu),
Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Panax ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza
glabra (Rh)ZO204.
Antihepatotoxic activity.
Hot
water extract of the rhizome, administered by gastric intubation to rats at
dosages of 100 and 400 mg/kg, was active vs CCl4-induced
hepatotoxicity. Methionine (100 mg/kg) was added to the 100 mg/kg dose. The
treatment also consisted of Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria
baicalensis(Rt), Pinellia ternata (Tu), Zizyphus jujuba (Fr),
Panax ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rh)ZO267. Ethanol (50%) and
water extracts of the dried rhizome, in cell culture at a concentration of 1
mg/mL, were inactive on hepatocytes vs complement-mediated cytotoxicityZO190. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome, administered intragastrically to mice for 1 month, was
active vs CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity. The test agent consisted of 7 g Bupleurum
falcatum, 5 g Pinellia ternata, 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis, 2
g Glycyrrhiza glabra, 1 g Zingiber officinale, 3 g Panax
ginseng, and 3 g Zizyphus jujuba in 100 mL waterZO185. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome, administered intraperitoneally to rats at a dose of 200
mg/kg, was active vs D-galactosamineinduced hepatotoxicity. A mixture of 5 g Bupleurum
falcatum, 4 g Pinellia ternata, 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis, 4
g Zingiber officinale, 3 g Zizyphus inermis, 3 g Paeonia
albiflora, 2 g Citrus aurantium, and 1 g Rheum species was used.
A mixture of 7 g Bupleurum falcatum, 5 g Pinellia ternata, 3 g Scutellaria
baicalensis, 4 g Zingiber officinale, 3 g Zizyphus inermis, 3
g Panax ginseng, and 2 g Glycyrrhiza glabra, suppressed hyaline
degeneration of liver induced by D-galactosamineZO282. Methanol extract
of a mixture of Machilus and Alisma species, Amomum
xanthiodes, Bulboschoenus maritimus, Artemisia iwayomogis, Atractylodes japonica,
Crataegus cuneata, Hordeum vulgare, Citrus sinensis, Polyporus
umbellatus, Agastache rugosa, Raphanus sativus, Poncirus trifoliatus, Curcuma
zedoaria, Citrus aurantium, Saussurea lappa, Glycyrrhiza glabra, and Zingiber
officinale, administered by gastric intubation to rabbits at a dose of 0.5
g/kg, was active vs CCl4-induced hepatoxicityZO331.
Antihypercholesterolemic
activity. Oleoresin, administered orally to rats, was active vs
cholesterol-primed animalsZO217. Ethanol (95%) extract of the dried rhizome, administered intragastrically
to male rabbits at a dose of 200 mg/kg, was active vs cholesterolfed animalsZO104.
Antihyperglycemic
activity. Rhizome ash, administered intragastrically to albino rats at
doses of 90 and 250 mg/kg, was inactive vs glucose tolerance tests (GTT)ZO169.
Antihypothermic
effect. Acetone extract of ginger, administered orally to rats at a dose
of 100 mg/kg, inhibited 5-hydroxytryptamine-induced hypothermia. The active constituent
of the extract was further examined. Four fractions were isolated by column chromatography.
Fractions 1 and 2 produced significant activity. When fraction 2 was further
purified, [6]-shogaol was obtained. A dose of 10 mg/kg, administered orally,
also produced inhibition of 5-hydroxytryptamine-induced hypothermiaZO041.
Anti-inflammatory
effect. Powdered ginger was evaluated in 56 patients (28 with rheumatoid
arthritis, 18 with osteoarthritis, and 10 with muscular discomfort). Among the
patients with arthritis, more than 75% experienced, to varying degrees, relief
in pain and swelling. All the patients with muscular discomfort experienced
relief i pain. None of the patients reported adverse effects during the period
of ginger consumption that ranged from 3 months to 2.5 yearsZO036. Ethanol (80%)
extract of the rhizome, administered intragastrically to rats at a dose of 50
mg/kg, was active vs edema-induced in the paw by carrageenan injectionZO292. Water extract of
the rhizome, administered intragastrically to rats at a dose of 2 g/kg was
active vs formalin-induced pedal edemaZO150. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome, administered by gastric intubation to rats at a dose of 1
g/kg, was active vs carrageenan-induced pedal edema and cotton pellet
granuloma. A mixture of 8 g Bupleurum species, 3 g Glycyrrhiza glabra,
3 g Zizyphus jujuba, 1 g Zingiber officinale, 3 g Panax
ginseng, 8 g Pinellia ternata, and 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis was
usedZO259. Dried rhizome in combination with Commiphora mukul,
taken orally by 24 patients with rheumatoid arthritis, produced complete relief
in 8 patients and partial relief in 7 patientsZO243. Decoction of the
dried rhizome, administered intragastrically to rats at a dose of 100 mg/kg on
days 1–22, was inactive vs adjuvant-induced arthritis. The decoction was used
in combination with Cinnamomum cassia (Bk), Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rt),
Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Ephedra sinica (St), Asiasarum species
(Rt), and Aconitum species (Rt)ZO199. Ethyl acetate
extract of the dried rhizome, applied externally to the mouse at a dose of 20 L/animal,
produced weak activity vs tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate-induced acetate
phospholipid synthesis and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced
ear inflammation. The hexane extract was equivocalZO095. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome, at variable concentrations, was inactive on the rat red blood
cell (RBC) vs resistance of heatinduced hemolysis. A mixture of 6 g Bupleurum
falcatum, 4.7 g Pinellia ternata, 2.7 g Scutellaria baicalensis, 3.3
g Zingiber officinale, and 2.7 g Zizyphus inermis was used. The
extract, administered by gastric intubation to rats at a concentration of 500 mg/kg
for 30 days, reduced swelling 23.2% on day 24 vs adjuvant-induced arthritis. Dosing
at 1 hour before and 1 and 2 hours after was inactive vs carrageenan- and dextran-induced
pedal edema and inflammation induced by paw immersion in hot water. A mixture
of 6 g Bupleurum falcatum, 4 g Pinellia ternata, 3 g Scutellaria
baicalensis, 4 g Zingiber officinale, 3 g Zizyphus inermis, 3
g Paeonia albiflora, 2 g Citrus aurantium, and 1 g Rheum
species, administered by gastric intubation at a dose of 500 mg/kg
for 30 days, reduced swelling 36% on day 24 vs adjuvant-induced
arthritis. When administered 1 hour before and 1 and 2 hours after immersion,
reduced swelling by 12.5% vs inflammation induced by paw immersion in hot
water, reduced swelling 22.1% after 5 hours after dextran injection vs
dextran-induced pedal edema, and was active vs carrageenan- induced pedal
edema. A mixture of 5 g Bupleurum falcatum, 1.5 g Glycyrrhiza glabra,
2 g Zizyphus inermis, 2 g Zingiber officinale, 2 g Panax ginseng,
4 g Pinellia ternata, 2 g Cinnamomum cassia, 2 g Paeonia
albiflora, and 2 g Scutellaria baicalensis, administered by gastric
intubation at a dose of 500 mg/kg 1 hour before and 1 and 2 hours after
injection of dextran, reduced swelling 25.5% at 5 hours vs dextran-induced
pedal edema and 32.5% on day 24 vs adjuvant-induced arthritis. The treatment
was inactive vs inflammation induced by paw immersion in hot water and carrageenan-induced
pedal edema. A mixture of 7 g Bupleurum falcatum, 2 g Glycyrrhiza
glabra, 3 g Zizyphus inermis, 4 g Zingiber officinale, 3 g Panax
ginseng, 5 g Pinellia ternata, and 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis,
administered by gastric intubation to rats at a dose of 500 mg/kg, was inactive
vs adjuvant-induced arthritis, dextran- and carrageenan-induced pedal edema,
and inflammation induced by paw immersion in hot waterZO332. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome, administered intraperitoneally to rats at doses of 100
and 200 mg/kg, were active vs carrageenan-induced pedal edema. The effect was
not seen in adrenalectomized ratsZO333. Methanol extract
of the dried rhizome, applied topically to mice at a dose of 20 L/animal,
was active vs tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate-induced acetate phospholipid
synthesis and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol- 13-acetate-induced ear
inflammationZO095.
Antimotion sickness
effect. Ginger and other medications were compared with scopolamine and d-amphetamine
for effectiveness in prevention of motion sickness. The subjects were given the
medications 2 hours before they were rotated in a chair until a symptom total
short of vomiting was reached. The three doses of ginger administered were all
at the placebo level of efficacy. Amitriptyline, ethopropazine, and trihexyphenidyl
increased the tolerated head movements, but the increase was not statistically
significant. Significant levels of protection were produced by dimenhydrinate,
promethazine, scopolamine, and Damphetamine. Efficacy was greatest, as the dose was increasedZO003. Powdered rhizome,
taken orally by human adults at a dose of 1 g/person, was active vs seasicknessZO284. A dose of 940
mg/kg was active vs motion sickness in 36 susceptible volunteersZO141. The ground rhizome,
taken orally by 80 male adults at a dose of 1 g/day, was active. Those who received
the powder suffered less seasickness compared with those who received placebo.
The difference was statistically significant, p < 0.05, 4 hours after
receiving the treatmentZO072.
Antimutagenic
activity. Aqueous highspeed supernatant of the plant juice, on agar plate
at a concentration of 0.1 mL/plate, was active on Salmonella typhimurium TA98
vs tryptophan pyrolysate mutagenicity. S9 mix was addedZO273. Infusion of the
rhizome, on agar plate at a concentration of 100 L/disc was inactive
on Salmonella typhimurium TA100 and TA98 vs ethyl methanesulfonate and
2-amino-anthracene-induced mutagenicity, respectively. Metabolic activation was
not required for activityZO161.
Anti-nauseant
effect. The rhizome, taken orally by pregnant women at a dose of 250 mg/person
for 4 days, was active. Thirty women participated in the double-blind randomized
crossover study of the efficacy of the powdered rhizome in hyperemesis gravidarum.
Each participant swallowed a 250 mg capsule containing ginger or lactose four
times daily for the first 4 days of treatment. This was interrupted by a 2-day
washout period, and the alternative medication was given in the second 4-day
period. Two scoring systems evaluated the severity and relief of the symptoms
before and after each period. The scores indicated that 70.4% of the participants
indicated preference to the period in which ginger was givenZO298.
Anti-nematodal
activity. Water extract of the rhizome, at a concentration of 10 mg/mL,
was inactive on Toxocara canis. The methanol extract, at a concentration
of 1 mg/mL, was activeZO209.
Anti-neurotoxic
activity. Hot water extract of the dried rhizome at a concentration of 75 g/mL,
was active vs cytochalasin B-induced neurite distortionZO281.
Anti-osteoarthritic
effect. Ginger extract was compared to placebo and ibuprofen in patients
with osteoarthritis of the hip and knee in a controlled, double-blind,
doubledummy, crossover study with a washout period of 1 week followed by three
treatment periods in a randomized sequence, each of 3 weeks’ duration. The
ranking of efficacy of the three treatment periods were ibuprofen more than
ginger extract greater than placebo for visual analogue scale of pain (Friedman
test: 24.65, p < 0.00001) and the Lequesne-index (Friedman test:
20.76, p < 0.00005). In the crossover study, no significant difference
between placebo and ginger extract could be demonstrated (Siegel- Castellan
test), whereas explorative tests of differences in the first treatment period showed
a better effect of both ibuprofen and ginger extract than placebo (p <
0.05). There were no serious adverse events reported during the periods with
active medicationsZO020.
Antioxidant effect.
Alcohol
(50%) extract of the ginger produced significant effect on enzymatic lipid
peroxidation. The extract dose-dependently inhibited oxidation of fatty acid
and linoleic acid in the presence of soybean lipoxygenase. Ginger, onion and ginger,
and garlic and ginger produced cumulative inhibition of lipid peroxidation this
exhibiting their synergistic antioxidant activity. The antioxidant activity of
the extract were retained even after boiling for 30 minutes at 100C,
indicating that the constituents were resistant to thermal denaturationZO016. The effect of
ginger (1%,w/w) on exposure of rats to subchronic malathion (O,O-dimethyl-S-1,2,bisethoxycarbonyl-ethyl
phosphorodithioate) was evaluated. Administration of malathion (20 ppm) for 4
weeks increased the malondialdehyde levels in serum, activities of superoxide dismutase,
catalase, and glutathione peroxidase in erythrocytes and glutathione reductase
and glutathione S-transferase in serum. It decreased the glutathione
level in whole blood. Concomitant dietary feeding of ginger significantly
attenuated malathion-induced lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress in the
rats. The results indicated the possible involvement of free radicals in
organophosphate-induced toxicity and highlighted the protective action of gingerZO017. Ginger (1% w/w)
significantly lowered lipid peroxidation by maintaining the activities of the
antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase
in rats. The blood glutathione content was significantly increased in
ginger-fed rats. Similar effects were also observed after natural antioxidant
ascor-bic acid (100 mg/kg, body weight) treatmentZO010. The glucosides,
1-(4-O--D-glucopyranosyl-3-methoxyphenyl)-3,5-dihydroxydecane and 5-O--D-glucopyranosyl- 3-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)
decane, incubated with acetone, were hydrolyzed to 6-gingerdiol. Their
antioxidative activities were investigated and compared to that of their
aglycon, 6- gingerdiol, by a linoleic acid model system and by their
1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging ability. 1-(4-O -D-glucopyranosyl-3-methoxyphenyl)-3,5-
dihydroxydecane did not indicate any activity, 5-O--D-glucopyranosyl-3-hydroxy-
1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)decane had as strong activity as the aglycon in
both measurementsZO019. Amrita Bindu, a saltspice mixture, with pepper and ginger
being the main ingredients, was investigated for its effect in maintaining
antioxidant defense systems in blood and liver when exposed to a carcinogenic
nitrosamine, N-methyl-N'-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG). The mixture prevented
MNNG-induced depletion of the antioxidant enzymes and the scavenger antioxidants
glutathione and vitamins A, C, and E. It provides protection against free
radical- and reactive oxygen speciesinduced tissue lipid peroxidation and the resultant
tissue degenerationZO030. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are vulnerable to peroxidative attack.
Protecting from peroxidation is essential to use their beneficial effects in
health and in preventing disease. The antioxidants vitamin E, t-butylhydroxy
toluene, and t-butylhydroxy anisole inhibited ascorbate/Fe2+-induced lipid
peroxidation in rat liver microsomes. Zingerone from ginger-inhibited lipid
peroxidation at high concentrations (>150 M). The
inhibition was not affected by the addition of high Fe2+ concentrationZO037. Aqueous
high-speed supernatant of the rhizome, at a concentration of 0.04 mL and hot
water extract and juice at concentration of 0.02 mL, was activeZO073. Methanol extract
of the rhizome, administered intragastrically to mice at a dose of 0.16 g/kg,
was active vs ethanol-induced lipid peroxidation in the mouse liverZO182.
Antioxytocic
effect. Water extract of the dried rhizome, at a concentration of 0.01
g/ mL, produced weak activity on the rat uterus vs oxytocin-induced
contractionsZO328.
Antipyretic
activity. Ethanol (80%) extract of the rhizome, administered
intragastrically to rats at a dose of 100 mg/kg, was active vs hyperthermia
induced by yeast injectionZO292. Water extract of a mixture of Bupleurum falcatum,
Scutellaria baicalensis, Paeonia alba, Rheum tanguticum, Citrus aurantium,
Pinellia ternata, Zingiber officinale, and Zizyphus inermis, administered
by gastric intubation to mice and rabbits at a dose of 200 mg/kg, was active vs
typhoid vaccineinduced pyrexiaZO323.
Anti-radiation
effect. Methanol extract of the dried rhizome, administered
intraperitoneally to mice at a dose of 400 mg/kg, was inactive vs soft X-ray
irradiation at lethal doseZO334.
Anti-rheumatic
effect. Ginger oil, administered orally at a dose of 33 mg/kg to male Sprague–Dawley
rats with arthritis induced in the knee and paw by injecting 0.05 mL of fine
suspension of dead Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli in liquid paraffin
(5 mg/mL, produced a significant suppression of both paw and joint swellingZO029. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome, administered intragastrically to female mice at a dose of
20 mg/mL, was active in influenza virus-infected animalsZO099.
Antischistosomal
activity. Hot water extract of the dried rhizome, taken orally by human
adults at variable dosage levels, was active. A mixture of Rehmannia
glutinosa (Rt), Dioscorea batatas (Tu), Dolichos lablab (Sd),
Glycyrrhiza uralensis (Rt), Zingiber officinale (Rh), Evodiarutae
carpa (Fr), Atractylodes macrocephala (Rh), and Panax ginseng (Rt)
was usedZO301.
Antispasmodic
activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the dried rhizome, at a concentration of
200 g/mL, was active on the guinea pig ileum vs histamine- and
barium-induced contractions. The water extract was active vs barium-induced
contractions and inactive vs histamine-induced contractionsZO335. The hot water
extract, at a concentration of 1 mg/mL, was active vs barium- and acetylcholine
(ACh)-induced contractions. A concentration of 3 mg/mL was active vs histamine-
induced contractions and on the vas deferens vs norepinephrine-induced
contractionsZO336. Water extract of the dried rhizome, in combination with Pinellia
ternata, Citrus aurantium, Pachyma hoelen, and Glycyrrhiza glabra,
at a concentration of 0.01 g/mL, was active on the guinea pig ileum and rabbit
small intestine vs ACh- and barium-induced contractionsZO328. Water extract of
a mixture of Bupleurum falcatum, Scutellaria baicalensis, Paeonia alba,
Rheum tanguticum, Citrus aurantium, Pinellia ternata, Zingiber officinale, and
Zizyphus inermis, administered to mice at a concentration of 1–5 mg/mL,
was active vs histamine-induced contractions. A concentration of 10 mg/mL
was active vs barium- and Achinduced contractionsZO323.
Anti-tumor
activity. Ginger rhizome was investigated for antitumor promoter activity using
the short-term assay of inhibition of 12-O-tetradecanoyl
phorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced Epstein-Barr virus early antigen (EBV-EA) in
Raji cells. The inhibition of TPA-induced EBV-EA was detected using the
indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and Western blot technique. The indirect
IFA detected the expression/inhibition of EBV-EA-D (diffused EA), whereas the
Western blot technique detected the expression/inhibition of both EBV-EA-D and
EA-R (restricted EA). The rhizome possesses inhibitory activity toward EBV activation,
induced by TPA. The cytotoxicity assay was conducted to determine the toxicity
of the rhizome extractZO023. Water extract of Zingiber officinale, Bupleurum falcatum,
Pinellia ternata, Scutellaria baicalensis, Zizyphus jujuba, Panax ginseng, and
Glycyrrhiza glabra, administered by gastric intubation to mice at a dose
of 300 mg/kg, was active on Leuk-L1210. Cytarabine or 5-fluorouracil was
also administered. Water extract of the dried rhizome, administered intraperitoneally
at doses of 100 and 300 mg/kg, in combination with Bupleurum falcatum,
Pinellia ternata, Scutellaria baicalensis, Zizyphus jujuba, Panax ginseng, and
Glycyrrhiza glabra on days 1 to 10, were inactiveZO268. Ethanol (95%)
extract of the dried rhizome, administered intraperitoneally to mice at
a dose of 100 mg/kg, was inactive on Sarcoma 180 (ASC)ZO194. Ethanol (90%)
extract of the dried rhizome, administered intraperitoneally to mice at a dose
of 500 mg/kg, was inactive on CAEhrlich ascites, Sarcoma 180 (ASC), and Leuk-SN36ZO318.
Anti-ulcer effect. Acetone extract of
ginger, administered orally to rats with HCl/ethanol-induced gastric ulcers at
a dose of 1 g/kg, significantly inhibited gastric lesions by 97.5%. Zingiberene
and 6-gingerol, at a dose of 100 mg/kg, also inhibited gastric lesions by 53.6
and 54.5%, respectivelyZO050. Decoctions of dried and roasted ginger were investigated on
four experimental gastric ulcer models. The decoction was administered orally
at a dose of 4.5 g/kg to rats. The roasted ginger had a significant inhibiting tendency
on three gastric ulcer models, except the indomethacin-induced model. The dried
ginger had no such effectsZO042. The rhizome, administered to rats at a dose of 150 mg/kg,
produced 57.5% inhibition of gastric ulcers induced by HCl and ethanol. The
acetone/ethanol extract, at a dose of 500 mg/kg, produced 91.9% inhibition.
Butanol extract, at a dose of 285 mg/kg, produced 12.4% inhibition and water
extract at a dose of 640 mg/kg, produced 45.8% inhibitionZO079. Acetone and
methanol extracts of the dried rhizome, administered intragastrically to rats
at a dose of 1 g/kg, were active vs HCl/ethanol-induced ulcers. Chromatographic
fraction of the dried rhizome, administered intragastrically to rats at a dose
of 40 mg/kg, was active vs HCl/ethanol- induced ulcersZO181. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome, administered by gastric intubation to mice at a dose of
1.766 g/kg, was inactive vs stress induced ulcersZO337. Methanol (50%)
extract of the dried rhi zome, administered by gastric intubation to mice at a
dose of 10 g/kg, was inactive vs stress-induced (restraint) ulcersZO237. Water extract of
the dried rhizome, administered intraperitoneally to rats at a dose of 1 mg/g, was
active vs Shay ulcers. The results were significant at p < 0.001
levelZO328. Ethanol (95%) extract of the dried rhizome, administered by
gastric intubation to rats at a dose of 500 mg/kg, significantly lowered ulcer
index of necrotizing agents (80% ethanol, 0.6% HCl, 0.2 M NaOH, and 25%
NaCl), and was active vs aspirin-, indomethacin-, and cold stress-induced
ulcers. The extract was inactive vs reserpine- and Shay-induced ulcersZO184. Water extract of
the dried rhizome in a preparation containing Atractylodes macrocephala,
Amomum species, Magnolia officinalis, Citrus aurantium ssp. nobilis,
Pachyma hoelen, Elettaria cardamomum, Panax ginseng, Saussurea lappa,
Glycyrrhiza species, and Zizyphus vulgaris, administered intraduodenally
to rats at a dose of 1 g/kg, was active vs aspirin-, histamine-, stress- (water
immersion), and pylorus ligation-induced ulcersZO338.
Antivertigo effect.
Powdered
rhizome, administered orally to human adults at a dose of 1 g/person, was
active vs seasicknessZO284. Rhizome, administered orally to adults of both sexes at a dose
of 1 g/person, was inactive. The treatment was administered 2 hours before the
subjects were rotated in a chair making head movement until a symptom short of
vomiting was reachedZO183.
Antiviral activity.
Aqueous
low-speed supernatant of the rhizome, at a concentration of 1% and the rhizome
juice, produced strong activity on virus-top necrosisZO172. Decoction of the
rhizome together with c at a concentration of 250 g/mL, was
active on HIV-1 and Rauscher murine leukemia viruses. Reverse transcriptase
activity was inhibitedZO209. Water extract of the rhizome, in cell culture at a
concentration of 10%, was inactive on herpes virus type 2, A2-Virus (Manheim
57), poliovirus II, vaccinia virusZO257, and LPPI virusZO274. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome, in cell culture at a concentration of 500 g/mL,
was inactive on herpes simplex I virus. A dose of 300 mg/ kg, administered
intragastrically to female mice, was active on herpes simplex I virusZO138. Hexane extract of
the dried rhizome, in cell culture, was active on rhinovirus type 1-B virusZO131. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome, in cell culture at a concentration of 0.5 mg/mL, was
inactive on herpes simplex I virus, measles virus, and poliovirus IZO339.
Anti-yeast
activity. The essential oil, on agar plate, was inactive on Saccharomyces
cervisiaeZO127. Ethanol (95%) extract of the dried rhizome, in broth culture at
a concentration of 10%, was inactive on Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, and
Candida tropicalisZO340. Ethanol (90%) extract of the dried rhizome, on agar plate at a
concentration of 500 mg/disc, was inactive on Candida albicansZO318.
Arachidonate
metabolism inhibition. Decoction of the dried rhizome, at a concentration of 0.3
mg/plate, was active on sheep vesicular gland microsomal fractionZO315. Decoction of the
dried rhizome, administered intraperitoneally to rats at a dose of 0.74
g/animal, was inactive. Serum from rats fed the decoction was added to sheep
vesicular gland microsomal fraction. Arachidonic acid metabolism in gland
enzyme mixture was measured. The system was not affected by rat serum lipidsZO315. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome in a mixture containing 7 g Bupleurum falcatum, 5 g
Pinellia ternata, 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis, 3 g Panax
ginseng, 4 g Zingiber officinale, 3 g Zizyphus vulgaris, and
2 g Glycyrrhiza glabra in 700 mL water, administered intragastrically to
mice on days 1–3, was activeZO341. A mixture of Zingiber officinale (Rh),
Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Pinellia
ternata (Tu), Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Panax ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza
glabra (Rh), in cell culture, was active on macrophagesZO123.
Aspartate
transaminase effect. Decoction of the dried rhizome, taken orally by 80 adults of
both sexes with hepatitis B antigen- positive chronic hepatitis at a dose of 7.5
g/day for 6 months, was activeZO123. The treatment consisted of Zingiber
officinale (Rh), Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria baicalensis
(Rt), Pinellia ternata (Tu), Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Panax
ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rh)ZO123.
Bacterial stimulant
activity. Powdered rhizome, in broth culture at a concentration of 2 g/L,
was active on Lactobacillus plantarumZO285.
Barbiturate
potentiation. Ethanol (95%) and methanol (75%) extracts of the rhizome, administered
intraperitoneally to male mice at a dose of 500 mg/kg, were inactiveZO221. Methanol extract
of the rhizome, administered intraperitoneally to mice at a dose of 500 mg/kg
on days 1–3, was inactiveZO265. Water extract of the dried rhizome, administered by gastric
intubation to mice at a dose of 4 g/kg, was active. A mixture of Zingiber
officinale, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Panax ginseng, Scutellaria baicalensis, Zizyphus
jujuba, Pinellia ternata, Bupleurum falcatum, Cinnamomum cassia, and
Paeonia albiflora was usedZO250. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome, administered by gastric intubation to male mice at a dose
of 1 g/kg, was inactive. A mixture of Pinellia ternata (Tu), Magnolia
obovata (Bk), Perilla frutescens (Aer), Zibngiber officinale (Rh),
and Poria cocos (Fr) (6, 3, 2, 1, and 5 g, respectively) was used. A
dose of 2 g/kg was activeZO342. Hot water extract of the dried rhizome, administered by
gastric intubation to male mice at a dose of 4 g/kg, was inactiveZO342. Methanol (50%)
extract of the dried rhizome, administered subcutaneously to mice at a dose of
10 g/kg, was active and a dose of 3 g/kg was inactiveZO237.
Capillary
permeability. Methanol (50%) extract of the dried rhizome, administered subcutaneously
to mice at a dose of 10.0 g/ kg, had no effectZO237.
Carcinogenesis
inhibition. Decoction of the dried rhizome, in the ration of rats at a concentration
of 20% of the diet, was equivocal vs azoxymethane-induced aberrant crypt fociZO343.
Cardiac depressant
activity. Hot water extract of the dried rhizome, at a concentration of 3 mg/mL,
was active on the guinea pigZO336.
Cardiotonic
activity. Gingerol, a constituent of ginger, tested in the guinea pig
isolated atrial cells at a concentration of 3 10–6 M, produced an
increase in the degree and the rate of longitudinal contractions. In the guinea
pig left atria, gingerol produced little influence on the action potential,
although it increased the contractile force of the atria. The whole-cell
patch-clamp experiments showed that the slow inward current was little affected
by gingerol in the voltage-clamped guinea pig cardiac myocytes. The measurement
of extravesicular Ca2+ uptake of fragmented sarcoplasmic reticulum prepared from canine
cardiac muscle in a concentration-dependent mannerZO049. Gingerol,
isolated from the rhizome, stimulated the Ca2+-pumping activity
of fragmented sarcoplasmic reticulum prepared from the rabbit skeletal and dog
cardiac muscles. The extravesicular Ca2+ concentrations of
the heavy fraction of the fragmented sarcoplasmic reticulum were measured
directly with a Ca2+ electrode to examine the effect. Gingerol, at a concentration of
3–30 M, accelerated the Ca2+-pumping rate of
skeletal and cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum in a concentrationdependent manner.
Gingerol also activated Ca2+-adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) activities of skeletal and
cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum (EC50, 4 M).
The activation of the Ca2+-ATPase activity was completely reversed by 100-fold dilution
with the fresh saline solution. Kinetic analysis of the acti vating effects of
gingerol suggests that the activation of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase is uncompetitive
and competitive regarding Mg. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) at concentrations of
0.2–0.5 mM and above 1 mM, respectively. Kinetic analysis also suggested
that the activation by gingerol in mixed-type with respect to free Ca2+ and this enzyme is
activated probably resulting from the acceleration of enzymesubstrate complex breakdown.
Gingerol had no significant effect on sarcolemma Ca2+-ATPase, myosin Ca2+-ATPase,
actin-activated myosin ATPase and cyclic adenosine monophosphate
(cAMP)-phosphodiesterase activitiesZO051.
Cardiovascular
effect. [6]-shogaol, administered intravenously to rats at a dose of 0.5
mg/kg, produced a rapid fall in blood pressure, bradycardia, and apnea. There
was a marked pressure pressor response in blood pressure that occurred after
the rapid fall. A dose of 3.6 M produced inotropic and chronotropic
actions on isolated atria in rats. The effect disappeared by repeated
injections or pretreatment of 100 mg/kg administered subcutaneouslyZO054. Intravenous doses
of 0.1 to 0.5 g produced a pressor response in a dose dependent
manner. The response was markedly reduced by spinal destruction at the sacral
cord level. Norepinephrine (10 g/kg, intravenously) induced pressor
response that was not affected by spinal destruction. In rats in which the
spinal cord was destroyed at the thoracic cord level, [6]-shogaol-induced
pressor response was reduced by hexamethonium (10 mg/kg, intravenously) and
phentolamine (10 mg/ kg, intravenously). When the spinal cord was destroyed at
the sacral level, the pressor response was not affected by these blockades. In
the hindquarters of rats that were perfused with rat’s blood, [6]-shogaol
produced two pressor responses on the perfusion pressure. The first was
accompanied by a rise in systemic blood pressure, was reduced by hexamethonium
but was not entirely eliminated by phentolamine. The pressure response
disappeared with spinal destruction at the sacral cord level. The second response
that occurred when the systemic blood pressure regained its original pressure
was not affected by hexamethonium, phentolamine, or spinal destruction. Pressor
response induced by the injection of [6]-shogaol (10 g) into the
perfusion circuit was not affected by phentolamine and spinal destructionZO056. Ethanol (95%)
extract of the rhizome, administered by iv infusion to dogs at a dose of 5
mL/animal at a rate of 1 mL/minute, increased the heart rateZO314.
Cell proliferation
inhibition. The rhizome, in cell culture at a concentration of 3.75%, was
active on human fibroblastZO096. Decoction of the dried rhizome, at a concentration of 50 g/mL,
produced weak activity on the mouse mesangial cellsZO139.
Chemopreventitive
effect. The antitumor promotional activity of [6]-gingerol, a major pungent
principle of the rhizome, was investigated using a two-stage mouse skin carcinogenesis
model. Topical application of the extract onto shaven backs of female mice
before each topical dose of 12-Otetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate
significantly inhibited 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]-anthracene-induced skin papilloma
genesis. The extract also suppressed TPA-induced epidermal ornithine
decarboxylase activity and inflammationZO024.
Cholagogic effect. The effect of
ginger on bile secretion was examined to clarify the stomachic action of ginger
and to investigate its active constituents. The results indicated that the
acetone extracts, which contain the essential oils and pungent principles, produced
an increase in the bile secretion. Further analyses for the active constituents
of the acetone extracts through column chromatography indicated that [6]- gingerol
and [10]-gingerol, which are the pungent principles, are mainly responsible for
the cholagogic effectZO059.
Choleretic
activity. Acetone extract of the dried rhizome, administered
intraduodenally to rats at a dose of 500 mg/kg, was active. The water extract
was inactive, and the chromatographic fraction, at a dose of 150 mg/kg, was
activeZO344.
Cholesterol
absorption inhibition. Oleoresin, administered orally to rats, was active on
cholesterol-primed animalsZO217.
Cholesterol ester
formation. Decoction of the dried rhizome, administered intragastrically to
mice at a dose of 1.2 g/kg, produced no effect. The study was conducted with a mixture
of Zingiber officinale (Rh), Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria
baicalensis (Rt), Pinellia ternata (Tu), Zizyphus jujuba (Fr),
Panax ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rh)ZO111.
Choline
acetyltransferase induction. Water extract of the rhizome, in cell culture at a concentration
of 200 g/mL and a dose of 500 mg/kg administered intragastrically to male
rats, were active on astroglial cells. The extract was used in combination with
dried Pinellia ternata, Citrus aurantium, Poria cocos, Citrus unshiu,
Glycyrrhiza glabra, Polygala tenuifolia, Scrophularia ningpoensis, Panax
ginseng, Rhemannia glutinosa, and Zizyphus jujubaZO106.
Circulation
stimulation. Hot water extract of the dried rhizome, administered
intravenously to rabbits at a dose of 4.5 mg/kg, was equivocalZO345.
Clastogenic effect.
Crude
aqueous extract of the rhizome, administered by gavage at doses of 0.5, 1, 2,
5, and 10 g/kg body weight and ginger oil, administered intraperitoneally at doses
of 1.25 and 2.50 mL/kg body weight, were evaluated in mice. Attention was drawn
to the weakness of the clastogenic activity expressed by ginger extract. In
comparison, ginger oil produced a higher frequency of chromosomal aberrationsZO013.
CNS effects. Water extract of
the rhizome, administered to mice by gastric intubation at a dose of 4 g/kg,
produced no change in the electroencephalogram (EEG), behavior, or active and
resting cycles. A mixture of Zingiber officinale, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Panax ginseng,
Scutellaria baicalensis, Zizyphus jujuba, Pinellia ternata, Bupleurum falcatum,
Cinnamomum cassia, and Paeonia albiflora was usedZO250. Ethanol (95%)
extract of the rhizome, administered intraperitoneally to male mice at a
dose of 500 mg/kg, did not produce any depressant activityZO221. Ethanol (95%)
extract of the rhizome, administered intravenously to rabbits at a dose of 1.5
mL/ animal, produced a stimulating activityZO314.
Coagulation effect.
The
decoction, ether extraction and suspension liquid of roasted ginger and charcoal
of ginger, had markedly shortened the blood coagulation time in mice. The
decoction, ether extraction of fresh ginger and dried ginger, did not have any
effect. The decoction of ginger charcoal has stronger effect than roasted
ginger in shortening the blood coagulation time in mice. The effect of the decoction
of ginger charcoal on blood coagulation time increases when the dosage is
increasedZO035.
Corticosterone
induction. Hot water extract of the rhizome, administered by gastric intubation
to rats at a dose of 1.1 g/kg, was active. The dose also increased the plasma level
of prednisolone. A mixture of 8 g Bupleurum species, 3 g Glycyrrhiza
glabra, 3 g Zizyphus jujuba, 1 g Zingiber officinale, 3 g Panax
ginseng, 8 g Pinellia ternata, and 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis was
used. Results were significant at p < 0.01 levelZO259. Hot water extract
of a mixture of 7 g Bupleurum falcatum, 2 g Glycyrrhiza glabra, 3
g Zizyphus inermis, 4 g Zingiber officinale, 3 g Panax
ginseng, 5 g Pinellia ternata, and 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis, administered
intraperitoneally to rats at a dose of 200 mg/kg, produced an increase in serum
adrenal corticosterone vs carrageenan-induced pedal edema. The mixture, at a
concentration of 0.1 mg/mL, was inactive on the adrenal gland vs basal and ACTH-induced
corticosterone release from rat adrenal gland slicesZO283.
cAMP stimulation. A mixture of 7 g Bupleurum
falcatum, 2 g Glycyrrhiza glabra, 3 g Zizyphus inermis,
4 g Zingiber officinale, 3 g Panax ginseng, 5 g Pinellia
ternata, and 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis, administered
intraperitoneally to rats at a dose of 200 mg/kg, increased cAMP levels
in pituitary and adrenal gland but not in the hypothalamus. The
increases were inhibited by dexamethasoneZO283.
Cyclo-oxygenase-2
inhibition. Seventeen pungent oleoresins of ginger and synthetic analogs were
evaluated for inhibition on cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme activity in the intact cell.
The compounds exhibited a concentration and structure dependent inhibition of
the enzyme, with IC50 values in the range of 1–25 M. Ginger
constituents, 8-paradol and 8-shogaol, as well as two synthetic analogs,
3-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)decane and 5-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)dodecane,
showed strong inhibitory effects on cyclooxygenase enzyme activity. The SAR
analysis of these compounds revealed that the features that affect
cyclooxygenase inhibition are lipophilicity of the alkyl side chain, substitution
pattern of hydroxy and carbonyl groups on the side chain, and substitution pattern
of hydroxy and methoxy groups on the aromatic moietyZO006.
Cytotoxic activity.
Water
extract of the rhizome, in cell culture at a concentration of 10% was inactive
on HeLa cellsZO257. Ethanol (95%), petroleum ether, and methyl chloride extracts
of the dried rhizome, at a concentration of 320 g/mL, were inactive on
Raji cellsZO319.
Degranulation
inhibition. Hot water extract of the rhizome, in cell culture at a
concentration of 0.1 mg/mL, was active vs compound 48/40-induced degranulation
of mast cells. A mixture of Bupleurum falcatum,Pinellia ternata, Poria cocos,
Scutellaria baicalensis, Zizyphus vulgaris, Panax ginseng, Magnolia
obovata, Glycyrrhiza glabra, and Perilla frutescens was usedZO259.
Desmutagenic
activity. Aqueous highspeed supernatant of the fresh fruit juice, on agar
plate at a concentration of 0.5 mL/ plate, was active on Salmonella
typhimurium TA98 vs mutagenicity of l-tryptophane pyrolysis products. The
assay was done in the presence of S9 mixZO275. Fresh fruit
juice, at a concentration of 0.5 mL/plate, was active on Salmonella
typhimurium TA98ZO276.
Digestive effect. The fresh rhizome,
administered orally to rats at a dose of 50 mg%, significantly enhanced
intestinal lipase activity and also the disaccharidases sucrase and maltaseZO027.
Diuretic activity. Ethanol (50%)
extract of the dried aerial parts, administered intraperitoneally to rats at a
dose of 45 mg/kg, was activeZO262. Methanol (50%) extract of the dried
rhizome, administered subcutaneously to mice at a dose of 10 g/kg, was inactiveZO237.
DNA polymerase
inhibition. Decoction of the rhizome, at a concentration of 500 g/
mL, was active on and inhibition and inactive on gamma
inhibition. This study was conducted with a mixture of Bupleurum falcatum (Rt),
Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Pinellia ternata (Tu), Zizyphus
jujuba (Fr), Panax ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rh)ZO203. Water extract of
the mixture, at a concentration of 500 g/mL, was active on ,
, and inhibition when reverse transcriptase activity from
HIV was assayedZO203.
Enzymatic activity.
A
reductive metabolism of S-(+)-[6]-gingerol [1-(4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl)-5-hydroxydecan-3-one],
was investigated in vitro with phenobarbital-induced rat liver 10,000g supernatant
containing the NADPH-generating system. The ethyl acetate-extractable products
were isolated and two metabolites were identified as disatereomers of
[6]-gingerdiol by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. The ratio of the two
isomers formed was about 1:5, suggesting the stereospecific reduction of S-(+)-[6]-gingerol
by carbonyl reductase activity present in the postmitochondrial supernatant
fraction of rat liverZO031. Ginger oil, administered orally to Swiss albino mice at a dose
of 10 L/day for 14 days, significantly elevated aryl hydrocarbon
hydroxylase and glutathione S-transferase activities. There was no significant
effect on cytochrome P450 and acid soluble sulfhydryl glutathione S-transferaseZO033.
Epstein–Barr virus
early antigen activation. Ether extract and the decoction, in cell culture at a
concentration of 5 g/mL, inhibited antigen activationZO346.
Fibrinolytic
activity. The administration of 50 g of fat to 30 healthy adult volunteers
decreased fibrinolytic activity from a mean of 64.20 to 52.10 units (p <
0.001). Supplementation of 5 g of ginger powder with the fatty meal not only
prevented the fall in fibrinolytic activity but actually increased it significantly
(p < 0.001)ZO004.
Gastric exfoliation
effect. DNA content of gastric aspirates was determined after intragastric
infusions of 2, 4, and 6 g of ginger daily. The mean changes of DNA-p/ minute
in the gastric aspirates after the 2- and 4-g doses were 1.37 2.3
and 6.74 3.06, respectively. Doses of 0.6 g or more produced a significant
increase in exfoliation of gastric surface epithelial cells in human subjectsZO043.
Gastric secretory
inhibition. Water extract of the entire plant, administered by gastric
intubation to rabbits at a dose of 169 mg/kg, was active. The methanol extract
at a concentration of 114 mg/kg was also activeZO187.
Gastrointestinal
effect. Ginger root, in combination with ginseng, Zanthoxylum fruit,
and malt sugar, administered orally to guinea pigs at a concentration of 10–300
mg/kg, significantly improved carbachol-accelerated small intestinal transit in
a dosedependent mannerZO001. Dai-Kenchu-To, used as the treatment of paralytic ileus, was investigated
in vitro. A dose of 30–300 g/ mL produced a significant inhibition on
carbachol-induced contraction in a concentration dependent manner of the rat
distal colon. The treatment contained 20% Zanthoxylum fruit, 30% ginseng
root, and 50% ginger rhizome. Although each of them had no effect on
carbachol-induced contraction, the combination of three ingredients produced significant
inhibitionZO007. Acetone extract of the rhizome, administered intragastrically to
mice at a dose of 75 mg/kg, increased gastric motilityZO192. Acetone extract of
ginger, administered orally to mice at a dose of 75 mg/kg, [6]-shogaol at 2.5
mg/kg, or a [6]-, [8]- or [10]-gingerol at 5 mg/kg enhanced the transport of
charcoal meal. The effects of these substances were similar to or slightly
weaker than metoclopramide and donperidoneZO044. Dried rhizome,
taken orally by adults at a dose of 1 g/person, did not reduce gastric motilityZO115. Dai-Kenchu- To
and each ingredient were investigated on upper gastrointestinal motility and mechanism
of action. Five dogs were equipped with four-strain gauge-force transducers on
the gastric body, antrum, duodenum, and jejunum to measure contractile activity
of the circular muscle. Dai-Kenchu- To (1.5 g) or the separate ingredients Zanthoxylum
fruit, ginseng root, or dried ginger rhizome (1 g each) was administered by
bolus into the gastric lumen. Zanthoxylum fruit elicited phasic
contractions mainly in the duodenum and jejunum, whereas dried ginger rhizome
induced phasic contractions in the antrum. Ginseng root had no effect. Phasic
contractions induced by intragastric Dai-Kenchu-To were inhibited by atropine and
hexamethonium at all sites, although ondansetron inhibited these contractions
in the antrum and duodenumZO021. Ginger rhizome extract (2 100 mg) was investigated in
fasting and postprandial gastroduodenal motility with stationary manometry in
12 healthy volunteers. The interdigestive antral motility was significantly
increased by ginger during phase III of the migrating motor complex. The volunteers
also had a significantly increased motor response to a test meal in the corpus;
a trend to an increased motor response during ginger treatment was seen in all
other regions of interest. The treatment improved gastroduodenal motility in
the fasting state and after the standard test mealZO022. Methanol (50%)
extract of the dried rhizome, administered subcutaneously to mice at a dose of
10 g/kg, inhibited gastric secretion. The extract had no effect on gastric
motilityZO237.
Glucose metabolism
stimulation. Ethanol (95%) extract of the rhizome, administered in the
drinking water of mice at a concentration of 5%, was active. The extract, in
combination with Hordeum vulgare, Rhizoma zingiberis, Ligusticum
chuanxiong, Lilium brownii, Nephelium longa, and Polygonum multiflorum, increased
glucose oxidation in epididymal fat pads of obese C57BL/ 6J miceZO137.
Glucosidase inhibition.
Ethanol
extract of the dried rhizome produced 26% inhibition of -glucosidase
on the rat intestineZO100.
Glutamate
oxaloacetate transaminase inhibition. Hot water extract of the rhizome, administered by gastric
intubation to rats at dosages of 100 and 400 mg/kg, was active vs CCl4-induced
hepatotoxicity. Methionine (100 mg/kg) was added to the 100 mg/kg dose.
The results were significant at p < 0.01 level. The treatment also
consisted of Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria baicalensis(Rt),
Pinellia ternata (Tu), Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Panax
ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rh)ZO267. Hot water extract
of a mixture of 7 g Bupleurum falcatum, 2 g Glycyrrhiza
glabra, 3 g Zizyphus inermis, 4 g Zingiber officinale, 3 g Panax
ginseng, 5 g Pinellia ternata, and 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis, administered
intraperitoneally to rats at a dose of 200 mg/kg, suppressed increase in
serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT) resulting from D-galactosamine- induced
liver injuryZO282.
GPT inhibition. Hot water extract
of the rhizome, administered by gastric intubation to rats at dosages of 100
and 400 mg/ kg, was active vs CCl4-induced
hepatotoxicity. Methionine (100 mg/kg) was added to the 100 mg/kg dose. The
results were significant at p < 0.01 level. The treatment also
contained Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Pinellia
ternataPinellia ternata (Tu), Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Panax
ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rh)ZO267. Hot water extract
of the rhizome, administered intragastrically to mice for a period of 1 month,
was active vs CCl4- and galactosamine-induced toxicity. The extract was used in
combination with 7 g Bupleurum falcatum, 5 g Pinellia ternata, 3
g Scutellaria baicalensis, 2 g Glycyrrhiza glabra, 1 g Zingiber
officinale, 3 g Panax ginseng, and 3 g Zizyphus jujuba in 700
mL waterZO185.
Hair-stimulant
effect. Decoction of the rhizome, applied topically to human adults, was
active. A mixture of Polygonum multiflorum, Allium sativum, Zingiber
officinale, Panax ginseng, Carthamus tinctorius, Platycodon grandiflorum,
Biota orientalis, Ligusticum wallichii, Salvia miltiorrhiza, Angelica sinensis,
and Tetrapanax papyrifera. The biological activity has been patentedZO112.
Hepatic oxygenase
activity. Ginger, administered orally to rats, significantly stimulated
liver microsomal cytochrome P450-dependent aryl hydroxylase and cytochrome b5ZO045.
Hepatitis antigen
expression. Decoction of mixture of Zingiber officinale (Rt), Bupleurum
falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Pinellia ternata (Tu),
Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Panax ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza glabra
(Rh), taken orally by 80 patients with hepatitis B antigen-positive chronic
hepatitis at a dose of 7.5 g/day for 6 months, produced seroconversion to
antihepatitis B antibody in eight patients, 15 became seronegative, and 11 had
a decrease of hepatitis B antigen levels of more than 50%ZO123.
Histamine-release
inhibition. Hot water extract of the rhizome, in cell culture at a concentration
of 0.1 mg/mL, was active vs compound 48/40-induced histamine release. A mixture
of Bupleurum falcatum, Pinellia ternata, Poria cocos, Scutellaria
baicalensis, Zizyphus vulgaris, Panax ginseng, Magnolia obovata,
Glycyrrhiza glabra, and Perilla frutescens was usedZO205.
Hydrogen peroxide
inhibition. The volatile oil, taken as a scavenger, inhibited the production
of hydrogen peroxide in chondrocytes induced by fulvic acid from Kashin-Beck
disease areaZO014.
Hypertensive
activity. Ethanol (95%) extract of the rhizome, administered intravenously
to dogs at a dose of 5 mL/animal and a rate of 1 mL per minute, was activeZO314.
Hyperthermic
effect. Water extract of the rhizome, administered by gastric intubation
to mice at a dose of 4 g/kg, was inactive. The extract was used in combination
with Glycyrrhiza glabra, Panax ginseng, Scutellaria baicalensis,
Zizyphus jujuba, Pinellia ternata, Bupleurum fatcatum, Cinnamomum cassia, and
Paeonia albifloraZO250.
Hypoglycemic
activity. Ethanol (50%) extract of the aerial parts, administered by gastric
intubation to rats at a dose of 45 mg/ kg, was activeZO262. Ethanol (80%)
extract of the rhizome, administered intragastrically to rabbits at a dose of
100 mg/kg, was activeZO292.
Hypotensive
activity. Methanol (50%) extract of the dried rhizome, administered intravenously
to rats at doses of 0.25 and 0.5 g/kg (dry weight of plant), was activeZO237.
Hypothermic
activity. Hot water extract of a mixture of Pinellia ternata (Tu), Magnolia
obovata (Bk), Perilla frutescens (Aer), Zingiber officinale (Rh),
and Poria cocos (Fr) (6, 3, 2, 1, and 5 g, respectively), administered
by gastric
intubation to male rats at a dose of 4 g/kg, was inactiveZO342.
Immunomodulatoy
activity. Water extract of a mixture of Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rt), Panax
ginseng (Rt), Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt),
Zingiber officinale (Rh), Angelica acutiloba (Rt), Atractylodes
japonica (Rh), Astragalus membranaceus (Rt), Citrus unshiu (Pericarp),
and Cimifuga simplex (Rh), administered to mice in the diet at a
dose of 115.6 mg/kg, elevated the mitogenic activity of concavalin A (Con A),
lipopolysaccharide, phorbol myristate acetate, and phytohemagglutinin. Water extract
of Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rt), Panax ginseng (Rt), Bupleurum
falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Zingiber officinale (Rh),
Pinellia ternata (Tu), and Zizyphus vulgaris (Fr), in the diet of mice
at a dose of 178 mg/ kg, suppressed the mitogenic activity of
phytohemagglutinin and phorbol myristate acetate. Water extract of Bupleurum
falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Zingiber officinale (Rh),
Paeonia albiflora (Rt), Pinellia ternata (Tu), Zizyphus
vulgaris (Fr), Rheum tanguticum (Rh), and Citrus aurantium (Fr),
in the diet of mice at a dose of 192.6 mg/kg, suppressed the
mitogenic activity of phytohemagglutinin and phorbol myristate acetateZO347.
Immunostimulant
activity. Hot water extract of the rhizome, administered intraperitoneally
to mice at a dose of 2 mg/kg, was active. The extract was used in combination with
Astragalus membranaceus, Atractylodes lancea, Panax ginseng, Angelica
acutiloba, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Bupleurum falcatum, Zizyphus vulgaris, Citrus
unshiu, and Cimicifuga simplexZO196. Ethanol (80%)
extract of the dried rhizome, administered intragastrically to male rats at a
dose of 800 mg/kg, was active vs sheep erythrocyte-induced hemagglutination and
inactive vs sheep erythrocyteinduced B- and T-cell proliferationZO105.
Insect growth
inhibition. 6-Dehydroshogaol isolated by steam distillation from fresh rhizome
exhibited moderate insect growth regulatory and antifeedant activity against Spilosoma
obliquaZO005.
Interferon-induction
stimulation. Hot water extract of the rhizome, at a concentration of 6 g/mL,
was active. A dose of 2 g/kg, administered intragastrically to mouse, was active,
and 100 mg/kg, administered intraperitoneally to mice, was active vs polymyxin-B
induced interferon secretion inhibition. The extract used was in combination with
Bupleurum chinense, Pinellia ternata, Scutellaria baicalensis,
Zizyphus jujuba, Panax ginseng, and Glycyrrhiza glabraZO197. Decoction of Zingiber
officinale (Rh), Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria baicalensis
(Rt), Pinellia ternata (Tu), Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Panax
ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rh), in cell culture at a
concentration of 100 g/mL, was active. Peripheral lymphocytes
from eight patients with chronic active hepatitis, four with HbeAg and four
with anti-Hbe were cultured. RHbeAg or HbeAg both stimulated interferon (IFN)-
production, which was enhancedZO108.
Interleukin-1- release
inhibition. Hot water extract of the rhizome, administered intragastrically
to female mice at a dose of 20 mg/mL, was active vs influenza virus infected animals.
Results significant at p < 0.001 levelZO099.
Intestinal
absorption inhibition. Methanol extract of the dried rhizome at a concentration of 1%
and water extract at a concentration of 0.01%, administered by perfusion on the
rat, were active vs absorption of sulfaguanidineZO348.
Larvicidal
activity. Water and acetone extracts of the rhizome were inactive on Aedes
aegyptiZO303.
Leukocyte migration
inhibition. Ethanol (80%) extract of the dried rhizome, administered intragastrically
to rats at a dose of 800 mg/kg, was active vs sheep erythrocyteinduced leucocyte
migrationZO105.
Lipid peroxide
formation inhibition. Methylene chloride extract of the rhizome, at a concentration of
0.02%, was activeZO130.
Lipolytic effect. Ethanol (95%)
extract of the rhizome, in the drinking water of obese mice at a concentration
of 5%, was active. The extract was used in combination with Hordeum vulgare,
Rhizoma zingiberis, Ligusticum chuanxiong, Lilium brownii, Nephelium longa,
and Polygonum multiflorumZO137.
Lymphocyte blastogenesis
stimulant. Water extract of the heartwood, administered intraperitoneally
to mice at a dose of 250 mg/kg, induced an accumulation of B lymphocytes
in the peritoneal cavity and spleen, and functional maturation of B cells was
observed as indicated by antibody responsesZO349.
Macrophage
cytotoxicity enhancement. Hot water extract of the rhizome, administered by gastric
intubation to mice at a dose of 600 mg/kg, was inactive on LEUK-L1210.
The preparation used also contained Bupleurum falcatum, Pinellia
ternata, Scutellaria baicalensis, Zizyphus jujuba, Panax ginseng,
and Glycyrrhiza glabraZO268.
Memory retention
impairment. Acetone/ water extract of the rhizome, administered intragastrically
to male rats at a dose of 1 mg/ kg, was inactive vs inhibitory avoidance conditioning
and water maze performanceZO094.
Memory retention
improvement. Decoction of the rhizome, administered intragastrically to male
mice at a dose of 1 g/kg, produced amelioration of memory registration impairment
induced by ethanol in step through and step down tests. The decoction was used
in combination with Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rt), Saussurea lappa (Rt),
Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Zizyphus jujuba (Sd), and Euphoria
longana (Aril)ZO202. The powdered rhizome, administered intragastrically to rats, increased
passive avoidance test latency in aged animals. The rhizome was used in
combination with Pinellia ternata, Phyllostachys nigra, Citrus aurantium,
Poria cocos, Citrus unshiu, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Polygala tenuifolia, Scrophularia
ningpoensis, Panax ginseng, Rhemannia glutinosa, and Zizyphus jujubaZO350.
Metabolism. Zingerone,
4-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) butan-2-one, a pungent principle of ginger, has
been investigated in rats. Oral or intraperitoneal dosage of 100 mg/kg resulted
in urinary excretion of most metabolites within 24 hours, mainly as glucuronide
and/or sulphate conjugates. Although zingerone itself accounted for roughly 50–55%
of the dose, reduction to the corresponding carbinol (11–13%) also occurred. Side
chain oxidation took place at all three available sites and oxidation at the
three-position, giving rise to C6-C2 metabolites, predominated. Appreciable
biliary excretion occurred (40% in 12 hours). Biliary studies and studies in
vitro using cecal microorganisms indicated that several Odemethylated
metabolites found in the urine are of bacterial originZO062.
Mitogenic activity.
Alcohol
insoluble fraction and the water extract of rhizome, at a concentration of 200 g/mL,
were inactive on the mouse thymus. The alcohol soluble fraction, at a
concentration of 100 g/mL, was activeZO166.
Molluscicidal
activity. Methanol extract of the dried rhizome, at a concentration of 100
ppm, produced 20% mortality on Bulinus globosusZO351.
Mutagenic activity.
Ginger
extract and the constituents gingerol, shogaol, and zingerone were tested in Salmonella
typhimurium strains TA100, TA98, TA1535, and TA1538 in the presence of S9
mix. Gingerol and shogaol were mutagenic in metabolic activation in strains TA100
and TA1535. Zingerone was nonmutagenic in all of the four strains with or
without S9 mix. When the mutagenicity of gingerol and shogaol was tested in the
presence of different concentrations of zingerone, it was observed that
zingerone suppressed the mutagenic activity in both of the compounds in a
dose-dependent mannerZO052. Water extract of the rhizome, on agar plate at a concentration
of 100 mg/mL, was inactive on Bacillus subtilis H-17(Rec+) and produced weak
activity on Salmonella typhimurium TA100ZO244. The hot water
extract, at a concentration of 12.5 mg of dried rhizome/disc, was active on Salmonella
typhimurium TA100. A concentration of 50 mg/disc was inactive on Salmonella
typhimurium TA98. Histidine was removed from the extract before testing
and metabolic activation had no effect on the resultsZO238. Methanol extract
of the rhizome, on agar plate at a concentration of 100 mg/ mL, was inactive on
Bacillus subtilis H- 17(Rec+)ZO244. Ethanol (70%)
extract of the rhizome, on agar plate at a concentration of 4 mg/mL, was
inactive on Escherichia coli PQ37 when assayed by SOS Chromotest, and
inactive on Salmonella typhimurium TA1535 when assayed by SOS UMU testZO207. Ethanol (95%)
extract of the rhizome, on agar plate at a concentration of 100 g/plate,
was active on Salmonella typhimurium TA100 and TA1535, and
inactive on TA98 and TA1538ZO278. Ethanol (95%) extract of the dried
rhizome, on agar plate at a concentration of 10 mg/plate, produced strong
activity on Salmonella typhimurium TA102ZO327. Ethanol (70%),
and water and chloroform extracts of the ethanol extract of the dried rhizome,
on agar plate at a concentration of 50 mg/mL, were inactive on Escherichia
coli PQ 37. Metabolic activation had no effect on the resultsZO352. Hot water extract
of the dried rhizome, on agar plate at a concentration of 50 mg/disc, was inactive
on Salmonella typhimurium TA100 and TA98ZO326.
Natural-killer cell
enhancement. Polysaccharide fraction of the rhizome, administered intragastrically
to female mice at a dose of 1 g/kg, produced weak activity vs mononuclear cell
incubated with YAC-1 cellsZO092.
Nausea inhibitory
effect. Women with nausea and vomiting during pregnancy were treated within
a randomized double-masked design to receive either 1 g of ginger per day or an
identical placebo for 4 days. During the 5-month period, 70 women participated.
They were graded by the severity of their nausea using visual analog scales and
recording the number of vomiting episodes in the previous 24 hours before
treatment and again during 4 consecutive days while taking the treatment. The
visual analog scores of posttherapy minus baseline nausea decreased significantly
in the ginger group (2.1 compared with 0.9, p = 0.14). The number of vomiting
episodes also decreased significantly in the ginger group (1.4) compared with
the placebo group (0.3, p <0.001). Likert scales showed that 28 of 32
in the ginger group had improvement in nausea symptoms compared with 10 of 35
in the placebo group (p < 0.001). No adverse effect of ginger on
pregnancy outcome was detectedZO008.
Nematocidal
activity. Decoction of the rhizome, at a concentration of 10 mg/mL, was
inactive on Toxocara canisZO200. Water extract of the
rhizome, in cell culture at a concentration of 10 mg/mL was inactive on Toxacara
canis. The methanol extract at a concentration of 1 mg/mL was activeZO157.
Nerve growth factor
stimulation. Powdered rhizome, administered intragastrically to rats, was
active on the brain. A Kampo medicine “Kami-Untan-To,” with Pinellia ternata,
Phykllostachys nigra, Citrus aurantium, Poria cocos, Citrus unshiu, Glycyrrhiza
glabra, Polygala tenuifolia, Scrophularia ningpoensis, Panax ginseng, Rhemannia
glutinosa, Zizyphus jujuba, and Zingiber officinale was usedZO350.
Neuromuscular
blocking activity. Decoction of the dried rhizome, taken orally by human adults of
both sexes at a dose of 4.6 g/person, was active on 25 patients with spastic
facial paralysis. The patients were treated with a mixture of Piper longum, Zingiber
officinale, Piper cubeba, Curcuma zedoaria, Juniperus communis, Cichorium intybus,
Mentha arvensis, Commiphora mukul, and Sesamum indicum given in
divided doses of 4.6 g in 24 hours. Six g of a decoction of Lavandula
stoechas was also given in some cases. Seventy-six percent of the
patients were cured, 16% showed a partial response, and 8% did not show any improvementZO263.
Pancreatic effect. Ginger (50 mg%),
administered orally to rats, significantly enhanced pancreatic lipase activity
and significantly stimulated trypsin and chymotrypsin. The stimulatory
influence was not observed when the treatment was restricted to a single doseZO018.
Passive cutaneous
anaphylaxis inhibition. Acetone extract of the dried rhizome, administered
intragastrically to rats at a dose of 200 mg/kg, was active vs IgE-sensitized animalsZO353.
Pepsin inhibition. Water extract of
the rhizome, administered by gastric intubation to rabbits at a dose of 125
mg/kg, was active. Results significant at p < 0.05 level. The extract
also contained Pinellia ternata (Rh), Atractylis species (Rh), Citrus
aurantium (Pl), Pachyma hoelen fruit body, Panax ginseng (Rt),
Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rt), Zingiber officinale (Rh), and Zizyphus
jujuba (Fr)ZO258.
Phagocytosis
activity. Ethanol (80%) extract of the rhizome, in cell culture at a
concentration of 500 g/mL, did not decrease the rate of activity on
mouse spleen lymphocytes (DBA/2)ZO292.
Pharmacokinetics. [6]-Gingerol, the
pungent constituent of ginger, was studied after bolus intravenous injection at
a dose of 3 mg/kg to rats. Quantitative analysis with high reproducibility was
achieved over the
concentration range
of 0.2–40 g/mL. A two-compartment open model described the plasma
concentration-time curve. [6]-Gingerol was rapidly cleared from plasma with a
terminal half-life of 7.23 minutes and a total body clearance of 16.8
mL/minutes/ kg. Serum protein binding of [6]-gingerol was 92.4%ZO038.
Phosphodiesterase
inhibition. Hot water extract of the rhizome, at a concentration of 1 mg/mL,
was inactiveZO163.
Plaque formation
suppressant. Water extract of the rhizome was inactive on Streptococcus
mutans. The methanol and methanol/ water extracts were active; IC50 were greater than
1000, 60, and 230 g/mL, respectivelyZO272.
Platelet
aggregation inhibition. Gingerol was evaluated for its ability to inhibit human platelet
activation, as compared to aspirin, by measuring the effect on arachidonic acid-induced
platelet serotonin release and aggregation in vitro. The IC50 for arachidonic
acid-induced (at EC50 was 0.75mM) serotonin release by aspirin was 23.4 M.
Gingerol inhibited the arachidonic acid-induced platelet reaction in a similar dose
range as aspirin, with IC50 values between 45.3 and 82.6 M. The analogues (G1-G7),
were also effective inhibitors of arachidonic acid-induced platelet
aggregation. Maximum inhibitory values of 10.5 and 10.4 M for
G3 and G4, respectively, were approximately twofold greater than aspirin (ICmax
6 M).
The other analogues maximally inhibited arachidonic acid-induced platelet
aggregation at approx 20–25 MZO002. Aqueous extract
of ginger was found to inhibit aggregation induced by ADP, epinephrine,
collagen, and arachidonate in a dose-dependent manner in vitro. A correlation
was found between the amounts of ginger extract needed to inhibit platelet aggregation
and those to inhibit platelet thromboxane synthesis. The extract reduced platelet
prostaglandin-endoperoxides. A dose-related inhibition of platelet thromboxane
and prostaglandin (PGF2-, PGE2 and PGD2) synthesis was
affected by ginger extract. The extract inhibited biosynthesis of prostacyclin
in rat aorta from labeled arachidonate. It mildly inhibited the synthesis of
prostacyclin from endogenous pool of AA in the rat aortaZO060. The extract inhibited
platelet aggregation induced by several aggregation agents, including
arachidonate, in a dose-dependent manner. It inhibited the platelet
cyclooxygenase products, and this effect correlated well with its inhibitory
effects on platelet aggregation induced by the agents. The effects were dose-dependent.
Although it inhibited the biosynthesis of 6-keto-F1- in rat aortic rings
from labeled arachidonate, it did not reduce prostacyclin production from
endogenous arachidonate pool in aortic rings. The extract was further extracted
into three organic solvents in order of increasing polarity (N-hexane,
chloroform, and ethyl acetate). An analysis of the N-hexane extract revealed
at least three clearly separated TLC bands containing constituents that inhibited
platelet thromboxane generation simultaneously increasing lipoxygenase productsZO061. Chloroform, N-hexane,
and ethyl acetate extracts of the rhizome reduced platelet thromboxane
formation from exogenous arachidonate and inhibited platelet aggregation
induced by arachidonate, epinephrine, ADP, and collagen. The aqueous extract
reduced the formation of thromboxane from arachidonate-labeled platelets without
showing effects on platelet phospholipase activity. Thromboxane formation in labeled
platelets on activation with calcium ionophore A23187 was reduced by ginger
components isolated from 2 TLC bands, in a dose-dependent manner. At the higher
dose, lipoxygenase products were also reduced. The incorporation of arachidonate
into platelet phospholipids increased in platelets treated with aqueous ginger
extractZO053. [6]-Shogaol, extracted from semidried ginger inhibited
carrageenan-induced swelling of the hind paw in rats and arachidonic
acid-induced platelet aggregation in rabbits; it prevented PGI 2 release from the
aorta of rats when tested as an inhibitor of platelet aggregation. The results indicated
that shogaol might have an inhibitory action on cyclo-oxygenase in both platelets
and aorta. Investigation of the effects of shogaol on cyclo-oxygenases in
rabbit platelets and microsome fractions of rat aorta indicated that shogaol
inhibited cyclo-oxygenase activities of both tissues in a concentration-dependent
manner. The effect of shogaol on 5-lipoxygenase from RBL-1 cells indicated that
shogaol produced an inhibitory action on 5-lipoxygenase activityZO055. Dried ginger was
investigated in eight healthy male volunteers in a randomized double-blind
study of the effects of 2 g dried ginger or placebo capsules. Bleeding time,
platelet count, thromboelastography, and whole blood platelet aggregometry were
performed 3 hours and 24 hours after the treatment. There were no differences
between ginger and placebo in any of the variables measured. The effect of
ginger on thromboxane synthetase activity is dose dependent, or only occurs
with fresh ginger, and that up to 2 g of dried ginger is unlikely to cause
platelet dysfunction when used therapeuticallyZO032. Dried ginger,
administered orally in two doses of 2.5 g each to male volunteers who consumed
100 g of butter in 7 days, significantly (p < 0.001) inhibited the platelet
aggregation induced by ADP and epinephrine. Serum lipids, however, remained
unchanged in both ginger treated and control groupsZO034. Powdered rhizome,
administered orally to human adults at a dose of 5 g/person, was active vs ADP-
and epinephrine-induced aggregationsZO162. The rhizome,
taken orally by human adults at a dose of 2 g/person, was inactiveZO032. Water extract of
the dried rhizome, at a concentration of 5 mg/mL, was active vs arachidonic
acid-, collagen-, and ADP-induced aggregationZO322.
PG inhibition. Ethanol (80%)
extract of the rhizome, in cell culture at a concentration of 100 g/mL,
was active on leukocytesZO292. Hot water extract of the rhizome, at a concentration of 750 g/mL,
produced weak activity on the rabbit microsomesZO251. Decoction of the
dried rhizome, administered intraperitoneally to rats at a dose of 0.74
g/animal, was inactive. Serum from rats fed the decoction was added to sheep
vesicular gland microsomal fraction and the proportion of PGH2 in arachidonic acid
metabolites measured. The system was not affected by rat serum lipidsZO315.
Proteolytic
activity. Hot water extract of the rhizome, at a concentration of 1 mg/mL,
was inactiveZO235.
Prothrombin time
decrease. Hot water extract of the rhizome, administered intragastrically
to mice for 1 month, was active. The extract was used in combination with 7 g Bupleurum
falcatum, 5 g Pinellia ternata, 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis, 2
g Glycyrrhiza glabra, 1 g Zingiber officinale, 3 g Panax
ginseng, and 3 g Zizyphus jujuba in 700 mL waterZO185.
Renal function
improvement. Decoction of the dried rhizome, taken orally by 15 patients with
chronic renal failure resulting from chronic glomerulonephritis, polycystic disease,
tuberculosis, or diabetes, at variable dosage levels, was active. The patients
were dosed three times daily for 3 months with a combination of Zingiber
officinale and Panax ginseng. Improvements were seen in blood urea
nitrogen, edema, fatigue, nausea, and constipation without effect on hematocrit
or albumin. The effect decreased after 6 monthsZO316.
Respiratory
stimulant effects. Ethanol (95%) extract of the rhizome, administered intravenously
to dogs at a dose of 3 mL/animal, was activeZO314.
Reverse
transcriptase activity. Water extract of Zingiber officinale (Rh), Bupleurum falcatum,
Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Pinellia ternata (Tu), Zizyphus
jujuba (Fr), Panax ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rh),
at a concentration of 200 g/mL, was active on Moloney murine leukemia
virus and HIVZO203.
Reverse
transcriptase inhibition. Decoction of the rhizome, in cell culture, was active on Rauscher
murine leukemia virus. The study was conducted with a prescription consisted of
Bupleurum falcatum (Rt), Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Pinellia
ternata (Tu), Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Panax ginseng (Rt), and Glycyrrhiza
glabra (Rh)ZO203.
Serotonin
antagonist activity. Acetone extract of the rhizome, at a concentration of 25 g/mL,
was active on the guinea pig ileum vs serotonin-induced contractionsZO186.
Smooth muscle
relaxant activity. The essential oil was active on the guinea pig trachea and
ileum, ED50 171 and 36 mg/L, respectivelyZO270.
Superoxide
dismutase stimulation. Ethanol (95%) extract of the fresh aerial parts, administered
intraperitoneally to mice at a dose of 0.5 g/kg, was inactiveZO164.
Tachyphylactic
activity. Zingerone, a natural pungent-tasting compound in ginger, was evaluated
by whole cell patchclamp studies performed on rat trigeminal ganglion. The
inward currents activated by zingerone (30 mM) had peak times of approx
2 seconds, and all currents exhibited marked desensitization. Capsaicin (1 M)
activated a variety of inward currents having peak times ranging from 2 to 46
seconds that desensitized to various extents ranging from 0 to 100%. The inward
currents activated by piperine (100 M) had peak times of approx
25 seconds, and all exhibited a small desensitization. Piperine- and zingerone-induced
currents were found only in cells that could be activated by capsaicin. Capsazepine
(10 M), an established antagonist of capsaicin-induced
currents, inhibited the current evoked by piperine and zingerone, suggesting that
all three compounds activate vanilloid receptors. Doseresponse relationships
for capsaicin, piperine, and zingerone obtained at a holding potential of 60 mV
had threshold and apparent dissociation constants of 0.1 and 0.68 M,
3 and 35 M, and 1 and 15 mM, respectively. After seven
30-second applications of 1 M capsaicin or 100 M piperine
(in a buffer with 2 mM Ca2+), each interspersed with 2-minute
50-second washes, the peak currents were inhibited by approx 60 and 40%,
respectively. In contrast, 30 mM zingerone failed to evoke a current after
six applications. After complete tachyphylaxis produced by 30 mM zingerone,
1 M capsaicin failed to evoke a current, suggesting that these
two compounds crossdesensitize. The physiological responses produced by these
compounds can be rationalized, in part, by their different activation and
sensitization kinetics, and perhaps by the existence of different subtypes of
vanilloid receptorsZO026.
Taste-modifying
effect. Water extract of the dried rhizome, administered
intragastrically to male rats at a dose of 50 mg/mL, increased activity of
vagal gastric nerve. The extract also blocked the suppression of vagal gastric
nerve activity induced by Pinellia ternataZO317.
Teratogenic effect.
A
patented extract of garlic, administered by gavage to 22 pregnant rats at concentrations
of 100, 333, and 1000 mg/kg from days 6 to 15 of gestation, produced no
maternal or developmental toxicity. The rats were sacrificed on day 21 of
gestation and examined for standard parameters of reproductive performance. The
fetuses were examined for signs of teratogenic and toxic effects. No deaths or treatment
related adverse effects were observedZO009. Ginger tea,
administered to Sprague–Dawley rats from gestation day 6–15 at a dose of 20 or
50 g/L and then sacrificed at day 20, produced no maternal toxicity. However,
embryonic loss in the treatment groups was two times that of controls (p <
0.05). No gross morphological malformations were seen in the treated fetuses.
Fetuses exposed to the ginger tea were significantly heavier than controls, an effect
that was greater in female fetuses and was not correlated with increased
placental size. Treated fetuses also had more advanced skeletal development as
determined by measurement or sternal and metacarpal ossification centersZO011.
Thermogenic
activity. Chloroform extract of the dried rhizome, at concentrations of 5 and
50 g/mL administered by perfusion to the hind limb of rats,
stimulated oxygen uptakeZO128.
Thromboxane A2
inhibition. Rhizome, taken orally by human adults at a dose of 70 g/person
for 7 days, was activeZO188.
Thromboxane effect.
The
effect of raw ginger, taken orally by women at a dose of 5 g daily for 7 days,
was investigated. Thromboxane determination was made in serum obtained after
blood clotting. The values obtained were 782 482 pmol/mL serum before
ginger consumption and after consumption 498 164 pmol/mLZO048.
Thromboxane
synthetase inhibition. Ginger has been found to act as a potent inhibitor of thromboxane
synthetase, raising levels of prostacyclin, without a concomitant rise in PGE2
or PGF2-ZO057.
Toxic effect. Decoctions of dried
and roasted ginger were investigated on four experimental gastric ulcer models.
The acute toxicity test has shown that the LD50 of the roasted
ginger decoction administered orally was 170.6 1.1 g/kg and the LD50 of the dried ginger
decoction was over 250 g/kgZO042. Ethanol (80%) extract of the
rhizome, administered intragastrically to mice at a dose of 3 g/kg, was activeZO292. Ether extract of
the rhizome adulterated with phenol ester-triorthocresyl phosphate produced paralysis
in human adults who ingested 1–20 ounces of the extract. The symptoms appeared
4–35 days after the ingestion. Four to 6 years after the onset of the
paralysis, only three of the patients had recovered enough to walk without
support. Most of the patients had made good improvement in the arms but very little
in the legs. Four of the patients were unable to stand or walkZO320.
Toxicity
assessment. Ethanol (50%) extract of the aerial parts, administered
intraperitoneally to mice, produced LD50 178 mg/ kgZO262.
Toxicity
assessment. Ethanol (90%) extract of the dried rhizome, administered intraperitoneally
to mice, produced LD50 of 1 g/kgZO318.
Toxicological
evaluation. The effect of a patented standardized ginger extract EV.EXT 33,
was studied in rats. The extract had no significant effect on blood glucose levels
at the doses used. It also had no significant effects on coagulation parameters
or on warfarin-induced changes in blood coagulation, indicating that it did not
interact with warfarin. It did not decrease systolic blood pressure or increase
heart rate in the ratZO012.
Tryptophan
pyrrolase stimulation. Hot water extract of 7 g Bupleurum falcatum, 5 g Pinellai
ternata, 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis, 4 g Zingiber officinale, 3
g Panax ginseng, 3 g Zizyphus inermis, and 2 g Glycyrrhiza
glabra, administered intraperitoneally to rats at a dose of 200 mg/kg,
suppressed decrease in hepatic tryptophan pyrrolase resulting from D-galactosamine-induced
liver injuryZO282.
Tumor necrosis
factor inhibition. Ethanol (95%) extract of the rhizome, in cell culture at a
concentration of 100 g/mL, was inactive on macrophage cell line RAW 264.7
vs LPS induction of TNF-ZO171.
Tumor promotion
inhibition. Ethyl acetate and methanol extracts of the dried rhizome, in cell
culture at a concentration of 50 g/mL, produced weak activity on C3H/
10T1/2 cells vs tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate-induced acetate phospholipid
synthesis. The hexane extract was inactiveZO095. Ethanol (95%) and
petroleum ether extracts of the dried rhizome, in cell culture at a concentration of
160 and 80 g/mL, reZINGIBER spectively,
produced weak activity on Raji cells vs 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13- acetate-induced
EBV-EA activation. The methyl chloride extract, at a concentration of 40 g/mL,
was activeZO319.
Tumor promotion
inhibition. Methanol extract of the fresh aerial parts, in cell culture at a
concentration of 200 g, was active on EBV vs 12-O-hexadecanoylphorbol-13-
acetate-induced virus activationZO286.
Turgal stimulant
activity. Hot water extract of 7 g Bupleurum falcatum, 5 g Pinellai
ternata, 3 g Scutellaria baicalensis, 4 g Zingiber officinale,
3 g Panax ginseng, 3 g Zizyphus inermis, and 2 g Glycyrrhiza
glabra, administered intraperitoneally to rats at a dose of 200 mg/kg, decreased
the volume of exudate in carrageenan-induced pleurisyZO282.
Urease inhibition. Water extract of
the rhizome, at a concentration of 0.3 mg/mL, was inactiveZO167.
Vasoconstrictive
effect. Gingerols were evaluated on the isolated mouse and rat blood vessels.
Leukotrienes C4 and D4, a thromboxane A2, PGF2-, PGI2-Na, PGE2, the stable
PGI2 derivative TRK-100, and PGD2, induced contraction in longitudinal segments
of mouse mesenteric veins in that order of potency. Exogenous arachidonic acid
did not cause contraction. The mesenteric veins also contracted in response to
norepinephrine and phenylephrine but not to clonidine. The gingerols alone
relaxed the muscle transiently and then augmented response to prostaglandin F2-,
prostaglandin E2, prostaglandin I2-Na, and TRK-100, but suppressed the response
to prostaglandin D2. [6]-gingerols also potentiated the PGF2--induced
contraction in longitudinal segments of the rat mesenteric vein and vena cava,
but inhibited it in circular segments of rat aorta and longitudinal segments of
the mouse mesenteric arteriesZO046. Crude and processed ginger extracts and
pungent components, S-(+)-[6]- gingerol and [6]-shogaol were
investigated on norepinephrine and PGF2--induced contraction using
mouse mesenteric veins. Both constituents inhibited the contractile responses
to norepinephrine. The crude extract and S-(+)-[6]-gingerol potentiated the
PGF2--induced contraction, whereas processed ginger extract and
[6]-shogaol inhibited the contractionZO047.
WBC stimulant. Decoction of Zingiber
officinale (Rh), Bupleurum falcatum, Scutellaria baicalensis (Rt), Pinellia
ternata (Tu), Zizyphus jujuba (Fr), Panax ginseng (Rt), and
Glycyrrhiza glabra (Rh), in cell culture at a concentration of 20 g/mL,
produced an average enhanced response of 40%. Response was enhanced 34% when
pokeweed mitogen-induced peripheral mononuclear cell proliferation was assayed.
The treatment was inactive vs enhancement of phytohemagglutinin-induced
peripheral mononuclear cell proliferation, enhancement of Con A-induced
peripheral mononuclear cell proliferation, leukocytes obtained from patients
with AIDS, Con A-induced proliferation in leukocytes obtained from patients
with AIDS, phytohemagglutinininduced proliferation in leukocytes obtained from
patients with AIDS, and 23% increased vs pokeweed mitogen-induced proliferation
in leukocytes obtained from patients with AIDSZO320.
Weight-gain
inhibition. Ethanol (95%) extract of the rhizome, in the drinking water of
obese (C57BL/6J) mice, was active. The extract was used in combination with Hordeum
vulgare, Zingiberis rhizoma, Ligisticum chuanxiong, Lilium brownii,
Nephelium longa, and Polygonum multiflorumZO137.
INDICATIONS
(GINGER); GINGER FOR COLD/FLU; GINGER
FOR DYSPEPSIA;
OTHER
USES (Duke, J.A et al., 2003)
INDICATIONS
(GINGER)
Adenosis
(f; KAB); Aging (f; WHO); Alcoholism (1; MAB); Allergy (1; FAY; FNF; MAB);
Alopecia (f; DAA; DAD; FAY; WHO); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; FNF); Anemia (f; DAA);
Anorexia (2; JFM; KAB; PHR; WHO); Anxiety (1; MAB); Arthrosis (1; COX; MAB;
SKY); Ascites (f; KAB); Asthma (f; FAY; JFM; MAD); Atherosclerosis (f; SKY);
Backache (1; WHO); Bacteria (1; APA; FNF; MAB; TRA); Bite (f; DAA; KAB);
Bleeding (f; DAA); Blister (1; DAD; DAA; FAY); Boil (f; KAB); Borborygmus (f;
BGB); Bronchosis (1; AAB; BGB; FAY; FNF); Bruise (f; DAA; DAD); Burn (1; APA;
DAD; FAY; MAB); Cancer (1; MAB); Candida (1; TRA); Cardiopathy (1; APA; FAY);
Cataract (f; WHO); Catarrh (2; DAD; TRA); Chemotherapy (1; MAB; SKY); Chest
Cold (1; AAB); Childbirth (f; AAB); Cholera (f; DAA; DAD); Cold (2; AKT; APA;
BGB; FNF; MAD; TRA; WHO); Colic (1; PNC; BGB; SUW; WHO); Congestion (1; DAA;
DAD; FNF; RIN); Convulsion (1; PNC); Corneosis (f; DAA); Cough (1; APA; BGB;
FAY; FNF; PNC); Cramp (1; APA; BGB; KOM; MAB; PIP; PNC; TRA; WAM); Dandruff (f;
APA); Depression (1; APA; DAA; MAB; WOI); Diabetes (1; DAA); Diarrhea (2; AAB;
BGB; DAA; TRA; WHO); Dizziness (2; JAD); Dropsy (f; DAA; DAD); Dysmenorrhea (1;
AAB; APA; DAA; JFM; MAB); Dyspepsia (2; FAY; FNF; KOM; PIP; MAD; SUW; TRA;
WAM); Dyspnea (f; BGB; PH2); Earache (f; APA); Edema (1; MAB); Elephantiasis
(f; KAB); Enterosis (1; APA; FAY; MAD;
PNC); Epigastrosis (f; BGB; MAD); Epistaxis (f; FAY); Escherichia (1;
HH3); Fever (2; APA; CAN; FAY; FNF; MAB; MAD; TRA); Flu (2; APA; BGB; FNF; TRA;
VVG; WHO); Fungus (1; DAD; MAB; TRA); Gas (1; AAB; APA; MAB; MAD; PED; PHR;
PH2; PNC; SUW; VVG); Gastrosis (2; APA; FAY; MAD; PHR; TRA); Headache (1; APA;
FAY; KAP; MAB; WAM); Head Cold (f; JFM; RIN); Hemorrhoid (f; KAB; MAD; WHO);
Hepatosis (1; APA; MAD); High Blood Pressure (1; APA; PNC); High Cholesterol
(1; MAB; PED; PNC); Hoarseness (f; JFM); Hyperemesis (2; AKT); Immunodepression
(1; FNF; PH2); Impotence (1; APA; MAB); Infection (1; DAD; FNF; MAB; TRA);
Infertility (f; MAD); Inflammation (2; FAY; FNF; MAB; TRA; SKY; WAM; WHO);
Insomnia (f; WHO); Kawasaki Disease (1; MAB); Low Blood Pressure (1; MAB);
Lumbago (1; PNC); Malaria (f; JFM; MAD); Marasmus (f; DAA; DAD); Migraine (1;
APA; FAY; MAB; PH2; SKY; WHO); Morning Sickness (2; FNF; KOM; MAB; PIP; WHO);
Motion Sickness (2; FNF; KOM; MAB; PIP; WHO); Mycosis (1; DAD; HH3; MAB; TRA);
Myosis (1; AAB; AKT; WAM; WHO); Nausea (2; BGB; DAA; FAY; FNF; TRA; WAM; WHO);
Nephrosis (f; APA; DAA); Nervousness (1; FNF); Neuralgia (1; COX; FNF);
Neurasthenia (f; MAD); Obesity (1; PH2); Opacity (f; JFM); Ophthalmia (f; JFM);
Osteoarthrosis (1; AKT; COX); Pain (1; AKT; FAY; FNF; JBU; PED; PNC; TRA; WAM;
WHO); Palpitation (f; FAY); Parasite (1; MAB; TRA); Pharyngosis (1; JFM; PH2;
TRA); Postoperative Nausea (2; WHO); Pyrexia (f; PNC); Raynaud’s (f; BGB);
Rheumatism (1; FAY; MAB; MAD; PNC; SKY; WHO); Salmonella (1; HH3; TRA);
Schistosomiasis (1; DAD; HH3; TRA); Seasickness (2; FNF; WHO); Snakebite (f;
DAA; DAD); Sore Throat (1; APA); Splenosis (f; FAY); Staphylococcus (1; HH3;
TRA); Stomachache (1; AAB; AKT; DAA; DAD; FNF); Stomatosis (f; MAD);
Streptococcus (1; HH3); Stroke (1; APA); Swelling (1; FAY; HH3; MAB; WHO);
Thirst (f; DAD); Thrombocytosis (1; MAB); Toothache (f; DAD; MAD; KAP; WHO);
Trichomoniasis (1; DAA); Ulcer (1; APA; FAY; FNF; MAB; VVG); Vaginosis (1;
DAA); Vertigo (1; MAB); Virus (1; APA; FNF; MAB; TRA; WAM); Vitiligo (f; FAY);
Vomiting (3; KOM; PIP; WHO); Worm (f; DAA; DAD); Yeast (1; TRA).
GINGER FOR COLD/FLU:
•
Analgesic:
6-gingerol; 6-shogaol; borneol; caffeic-acid; camphor; capsaicin;
chlorogenicacid; eugenol; ferulic-acid; gingerol; myrcene; p-cymene; quercetin;
shogaol
•
Anesthetic:
1,8-cineole; benzaldehyde; camphor; capsaicin; eugenol; linalool; myrcene
•
Antiallergic:
1,8-cineole; 6-gingerol; 6-shogaol; citral; ferulic-acid; gingerol; kaempferol;
linalool; quercetin; shogaol; terpinen-4-ol
•
Antibacterial:
1,8-cineole; acetic-acid; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol; benzaldehyde; beta-ionone;
beta-thujone; bornyl-acetate; caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; chlorogenic-acid;
citral; citronellal; citronellol; curcumin; delta-cadinene; eugenol;
ferulic-acid; geranial; geraniol; kaempferol; limonene; linalool; myrcene;
myricetin; neral; nerol; nerolidol; pcoumaric-acid; p-cymene;
p-hydroxy-benzoic-acid; patchouli-alcohol; perillaldehyde; quercetin;
terpinen-4-ol; vanillic-acid
•
Antibronchitic:
1,8-cineole; borneol; curcumin
•
Antiflu:
alpha-pinene; caffeic-acid; limonene; p-cymene; quercetin
•
Antihistaminic:
6-shogaol; 8-gingerol; 8-shogaol; caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; citral; gingerol;
kaempferol; linalool; myricetin; quercetin; shogaol
•
Antiinflammatory:
10-dehydrogingerdione; 10-gingerdione; 6-dehydrogingerdione; 6-gingerdione; alpha-curcumene;
alpha-linolenic-acid; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; borneol; caffeic-acid;
capsaicin; caryophyllene; chlorogenic-acid; curcumin; eugenol; ferulic-acid;
gingerol; kaempferol; myricetin; quercetin; salicylates; shogaol;
vanillic-acid; zingerone
•
Antioxidant:
6-gingerdiol; 6-gingerol; 6-shogaol; caffeic-acid; camphene; capsaicin; chlorogenic-acid;
curcumin; delphinidin; eugenol; ferulic-acid; gamma-terpinene; gingerol;
isoeugenol; kaempferol; melatonin; myrcene; myricetin; p-coumaric-acid;
phydroxy-benzoic-acid; quercetin; vanillic-acid; vanillin; zingerone
•
Antipharyngitic:
1,8-cineole; quercetin
•
Antipyretic:
6-gingerol; 6-shogaol; borneol; eugenol; gingerol; salicylates; shogaol
•
Antirhinoviral:
ar-curcumene; beta-bisabolene; beta-sesquiphellandrene; zingiberene
•
Antiseptic:
1,8-cineole; alpha-terpineol; aromadendrene; benzaldehyde; beta-pinene;
caffeic-acid; camphor; capsaicin; chlorogenic-acid; citral; citronellal;
citronellol; eugenol; furfural; geraniol; gingerol; hexanol; kaempferol;
limonene; linalool; myricetin; nerol; oxalic-acid; paradol; shogaol;
terpinen-4-ol
•
Antistress:
gamma-aminobutyric-acid
•
Antitussive:
1,8-cineole; 6-gingerol; 6-shogaol; terpinen-4-ol
•
Antiviral:
alpha-pinene; ar-curcumene; beta-bisabolene; bornyl-acetate; caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid;
curcumin; cyanin; ferulic-acid; geranial; kaempferol; limonene; linalool;
myricetin; p-cymene; quercetin; vanillin
•
Bronchorelaxant:
citral; linalool
•
COX-2-Inhibitor:
curcumin; eugenol; kaempferol; melatonin; quercetin; 10-gingerol; 8-paradol;
6-shogaol; xanthorizol
•
Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor:
6-gingerol; capsaicin; curcumin; gingerol; kaempferol; melatonin; quercetin;
shogaol; zingerone
•
Decongestant:
camphor
•
Expectorant:
1,8-cineole; acetic-acid; alpha-pinene; beta-phellandrene;
beta-sesquiphellandrene; bornyl-acetate; camphene; camphor; citral; geraniol;
limonene; linalool
•
Immunostimulant:
alpha-linolenic-acid; benzaldehyde; caffeic-acid; chlorogenic-acid; curcumin;
ferulic-acid; melatonin
•
Interferonogenic:
chlorogenic-acid
•
Phagocytotic:
ferulic-acid
GINGER
FOR DYSPEPSIA:
·
Analgesic:
6-gingerol; 6-shogaol; borneol; caffeic-acid; camphor; capsaicin;
chlorogenicacid; eugenol; ferulic-acid; gingerol; myrcene; p-cymene; quercetin;
shogaol
·
Anesthetic:
1,8-cineole; benzaldehyde; camphor; capsaicin; eugenol; linalool; myrcene
·
Antiemetic:
6-gingerol; camphor; gingerol; shogaol
·
Antigastric:
myricetin; quercetin
·
Antiinflammatory:
10-dehydrogingerdione; 10-gingerdione; 6-dehydrogingerdione; 6-gingerdione;
alpha-curcumene; alpha-linolenic-acid; alpha-pinene; beta-pinene; borneol;
caffeic-acid; capsaicin; caryophyllene; chlorogenic-acid; curcumin; eugenol;
ferulic-acid; gingerol; kaempferol; myricetin; quercetin; salicylates; shogaol;
vanillic-acid; zingerone
·
Antioxidant:
6-gingerdiol; 6-gingerol; 6-shogaol; caffeic-acid; camphene; capsaicin;
chlorogenic-acid; curcumin; delphinidin; eugenol; ferulic-acid;
gamma-terpinene; gingerol; isoeugenol; kaempferol; melatonin; myrcene;
myricetin; p-coumaric-acid; phydroxy-benzoic-acid; quercetin; vanillic-acid;
vanillin; zingerone
·
Antipeptic:
benzaldehyde; beta-eudesmol
·
Antistress:
gamma-aminobutyric-acid
·
Antiulcer:
6-gingerol; 6-gingesulfonic-acid; 6-shogaol; alpha-zingiberene; ar-curcumene;
beta-bisabolene; beta-eudesmol; beta-sesquiphellandrene; capsaicin;
chlorogenic-acid; curcumin; eugenol; kaempferol; zingiberene; zingiberone
·
Antiulcerogenic:
caffeic-acid
·
Anxiolytic:
gamma-aminobutyric-acid
·
Carminative:
camphor; ethyl-acetate; eugenol; zingiberene
·
Digestive:
capsaicin
·
Gastrostimulant:
6-shogaol; galanolactone; gingerol; shogaol
·
Proteolytic:
zingibain
·
Secretagogue:
1,8-cineole; p-hydroxy-benzoic-acid; zingerone
·
Sedative:
1,8-cineole; 6-gingerol; 6-shogaol; alpha-pinene; alpha-terpineol;
benzaldehyde; borneol; bornyl-acetate; caffeic-acid; caryophyllene; citral;
citronellal; citronellol; eugenol; farnesol; gamma-aminobutyric-acid; geraniol;
geranyl-acetate; gingerol; isoborneol; isoeugenol; limonene; linalool; nerol;
p-cymene; perillaldehyde; shogaol
·
Sialagogue:
capsaicin
·
Tranquilizer:
alpha-pinene; gamma-aminobutyric-acid
OTHER USES (GINGER) — (Duke, J. A et al., 2003)
With its agreeable aroma and pungent taste,
it is prepared from whole or partially peeled rhizomes, called “hands.” Ginger
is extensively used as condiment, in baked goods, beverages, cakes, candies,
chutneys, curries, ginger ale, ginger beer, mincemeat, pastries, pickles, and
preserves. Ginger is marketed whole, cracked, ground, powdered, and as a
flavoring. It is said to be used as a vegetable substitute for rennet. Young
rhizomes, called green ginger, stem ginger, or young ginger, are peeled and
eaten raw in salads, pickled, or cooked in syrup and made into sweetmeats. Like
garlic, ginger gets milder if cooked, bitter if burned. To make “pink ginger,”
the Japanese garnish, take very young ginger roots, scrape off the skin,
saturate with lemon juice (which turns it pick), and season with salt (RIN).
Pickled ginger, known as “amazu-shôga” or “gari,” is frequently consumed with
sushi, etc. Pickled and dyed red, they are known as “hajikami-shôga.” Candied
ginger, preserved in honey, sugar, or syrup, is a real treat.
In Australia, the young rhizomes are
preferred for making crystallized ginger. The juice of the rhizomes is nice in
ginger ale, ginger beer, wine, brandy, and herbal teas. Young, spicy shoots are
eaten as a potherb or puréed and used in sauces and dips. Young inflorescences
are eaten raw in khaao yam. The leaves are used to wrap food for grilling
(FAC). Ginger contains a proteolytic enzyme which, like ficin, bromelain, and
papain, can be used for tenderizing meats. The proteolytic enzyme is present at
levels of 2.26% of the fresh rhizome, such that 50 kg ginger can yield 1 kg of
the enzyme; by contrast, it takes 8000 kg papaya (but remember, it’s mostly
water) to produce 1 kg papain, papaya’s digestive enzyme.
All these proteolytic enzymes, like the
hydroxy fruit acids they often accompany, have cosmetic applications as well.
The EO, called “oil of ginger,” is used in food flavoring, beverages, and perfumes,
especially men’s toilet lotions (DAD, RIN, WOI). And Bown (2001) notes that
shogaols, breakdown products of gingerol, produced as ginger dries, are almost
twice as hot as gingerols.
Hence the dried ginger, with half the water,
may have more than twice the pungency. That may well be why the Chinese use the
dry ginger for different purposes than the fresh.
CLINICAL STUDIES (Barnes, J. A et al., 2007)
Clinical trials of ginger have focused mainly on its effects on
the prevention and treatment of nausea and vomiting of various causes. Other
clinical studies have assessed the effects of ginger preparations on
gastrointestinal motility and on platelet function, and in vertigo and
inflammatory conditions, such as osteoarthritis. Several of these studies are
described below. Nausea and vomiting and effects on gastrointestinal motility Ginger
has been reported to be effective as a prophylactic against seasickness.(40,
41) Ingestion of powdered ginger root 1 g was found to significantly
reduce the tendency to vomit and experience cold sweating in 40 naval cadets,
compared with 39 cadets who received placebo.(40) Powdered ginger
root 1.88 g has been reported to be superior to dimenhydrinate 100 mg in preventing
the gastrointestinal symptoms of motion sickness induced by a rotating chair.(41)
However, a second study reported ginger (500 mg powdered, 1 g powdered/fresh)
to be ineffective in the prevention of motion sickness induced by a rotating
chair.(42) The study concluded hyoscine 600 mg and dexamfetamine 10
mg to be the most effective combination, with dimenhydrinate 50 mg as the
over-the-counter motion sickness medication of choice.(42)
A systematic review of six randomised controlled trials of ginger
preparations included three trials involving patients with post-operative
nausea and vomiting, and three further trials in patients with seasickness (motion
sickness), morning sickness (emesis of pregnancy) and cancer
chemotherapy-induced nausea (one trial in each condition).(43) Two
of the three studies assessing the effects of ginger in post-operative nausea
and vomiting found that ginger was more effective than placebo and as effective
as metoclopramide in reducing nausea. However, when the data from the three
studies were pooled, the difference between the ginger and placebo groups was
statistically non-significant.(43)
A randomised, double-blind, crossover trial involving women with
nausea of pregnancy assessed the effects of capsules of powdered ginger root
250 mg, or placebo, administered orally four times daily for four days.(44)
It was reported that symptom relief was significantly greater during treatment
with ginger than with placebo, and that significantly more women stated a
preference for ginger treatment than for placebo (as later disclosed). A more recent
randomised, double-blind trial involving 70 women with nausea and vomiting of
pregnancy assessed the effectiveness of capsules of powdered fresh ginger root
250 mg four times daily, or placebo, for four days.(45) At the end of
the study, ginger recipients had significantly lower scores for nausea and
fewer vomiting episodes than did the placebo group.
Studies involving healthy volunteers have investigated the
effects of ginger on gastric emptying as a possible mechanism for the anti-emetic
effects of ginger. A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover
trial involving 16 volunteers assessed the effects of capsules containing
powdered ginger 1 g for one week, followed by a one-week wash-out period before
crossing over to the opposite arm of the study.(46) Gastric emptying
was measured using a paracetamol absorption technique by comparing the effects
of ginger administration on mean and peak plasma paracetamol concentrations.
The results indicated that the rate of absorption of oral paracetamol was not
affected by simultaneous ingestion of ginger. Another randomised, doubleblind, placebo-controlled
trial involving 12 healthy volunteers assessed the effects of ginger rhizome
extract on fasting and postprandial gastroduodenal motility.(47) The
results of this study indicated that oral administration of ginger improved
gastroduodenal motility in both the fasting state and after a test meal.
A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial involving
eight healthy volunteers tested the effects of powdered ginger root 1 g on
experimentally induced vertigo.(48) One hour after ginger or placebo
administration, participants' vestibular system was stimulated by water irrigation
of the left ear. It was reported that ginger significantly reduced vertigo,
when compared with placebo.
OTHER
EFFECTS (Barnes, J. A et al., 2007)
In a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover
trial involving 75 patients with osteoarthritis of the knee or hip, the effects
of capsules of ginger extract 170 mg three times daily were compared with those
of ibuprofen 400 mg three times daily, or placebo, for three weeks with a
one-week wash-out period between each treatment period.(49) At the
end of the study, data for the 56 evaluable participants indicated that there
was no strong evidence of an effect for ginger extract over that of placebo on
parameters of pain.
A reduction in joint pain and improvement in joint movement in
seven rheumatoid arthritis sufferers has been documented for ginger, with a
dual inhibition of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways reported as a
suggested mechanism of action.(50, 51) Patients took either fresh
ginger in amounts ranging from 5–50 g or powdered ginger 0.1–1.0 g daily. A placebo-controlled
study assessed the effects of two doses of ginger powder (4 g daily for three
months, and 10 g as a single dose) on platelet aggregation and fibrinolytic
activity in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD).(52)
The results indicated that long-term administration of ginger
powder did not affect ADPand epinephrine (adrenaline)-induced platelet
aggregation and had no effects on fibrinolytic activity or fibrinogen
concentrations, compared with placebo administration. By contrast, administration
of a single dose of ginger powder to 10 patients with CAD produced a
significant reduction in platelet aggregation, compared with placebo
administration (n = 10 patients with CAD). In a study involving seven women,
oral raw ginger 5 g reduced thromboxane B2 concentrations in serum collected
after clotting,(50) thus indicating a reduction in eicosanoid
synthesis (associated with platelet aggregation).
PRECAUTIONS (Gale Encyclopedia)
Despite
studies showing ginger’s aid for pregnancy
nausea, the German Commission E has recommended that pregnant women not use
ginger. Some studies indicate that high amounts of ginger might cause
miscarriages. Researchers cannot follow up their suspicions with human clinical
trials because of the danger posed to unborn fetuses. Dosages over 6 g could
cause gastric problems and possibly ulcers. Ginger may slow down blood clotting
time. Before taking ginger, consumers should check dosages with a healthcare
provider.
Consumers
should not ingest the whole ginger plant; it has been found to damage the liver
in animals. Ginger root is not recommended for people with gallstones.
SIDE EFFECTS
Ginger
may cause heartburn.
INTERACTIONS
Ginger
can interfere with the digestion of iron-
and fat-soluble vitamins. Ginger also interacts with several medications. The
herb can inhibit warfarin sodium, which is a blood thinner. Ginger can
also interfere with absorption of tetracycline, digoxin, sulfa drugs, and
phenothiazines. Consumers should check with their healthcare provider for drug
or other interactions.
CONTRAINDICATIONS (Linda,
S. R. 2010)
Pregnancy
category is 1; breastfeeding category is 2A.
Ginger
should not be used by persons with
hypersensitivity to it. Unless directed by a physician, ginger should not be
used by persons with cholelithiasis.
SIDE EFFECTS/ADVERSE REACTIONS
• CV: Arrhythmias
•
GI:
Nausea, vomiting, anorexia
•
INTEG:
Hypersensitivity reactions
INTERACTIONS
DRUG
•
All
oral medications: Ginger may increase absorption
of all medications taken orally.
•
Antacids,
antidiabetics, antihypertensives, H2-blockers, proton pump inhibitors: Ginger
may decrease the action of these agents (theoretical) (Jellin
et al, 2008).
• Anticoagulants (ardeparin, anisindione, aspirin,
dicumerol, dalteparin, heparin, warfarin), antiplatelets (abciximab): Ginger may
increase the risk for bleeding when used concurrently with anticoagulants antiplatelets
(theoretical).
HERB
Anticoagulant/antiplatelet herbs:
When used with anticoagulant/antiplatelet herbs, ginger
may increase the risk for bleeding (theoretical) (Jellin et al, 2008).
Lab Test
Plasma partial prothrombin time,
prothrombin time: Ginger may increase plasma
partial prothrombin time in clients taking warfarin concurrently and may
increase prothrombin time.
Adverse effects: Underline
= life-threatening
PHARMACOLOGY
PHARMACOKINETICS
Information
on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of ginger is limited. Its
metabolites are known to be eliminated via urinary excretion within 24 hours,
and it is 90% bound to plasma proteins.
CLIENT CONSIDERATIONS
ASSESS
•
Assess the reason the client is taking ginger.
•
Assess for hypersensitivity reactions. If present, discontinue use of this herb
and administer an antihistamine or other appropriate therapy.
•
Assess all medications used (see Interactions).
ADMINISTER
•
Instruct the client to store ginger products in a cool, dry place, away from
heat and moisture.
Teach Client/Family
•
Inform the client that pregnancy category is 1 and breastfeeding category is
2A.
SIDE-EFFECTS, TOXICITY (Barnes, J. A et al., 2007)
CLINICAL DATA
None documented. However, there is a lack of clinical safety and
toxicity data for ginger and further investigation of these aspects is required.
Ginger oil is stated to be non-irritating and nonsensitising although
dermatitis may be precipitated in hypersensitive individuals. Phototoxicity is
not considered to be of significance.(53)
PRECLINICAL DATA
Ginger oil is stated to be of low toxicity(G58) with acute LD50 values
(rat, by mouth; rabbit, dermal) reported to exceed 5 g/kg.(53) Mutagenic
activity has been documented for an ethanolic ginger extract, gingerol and
shogaol in Salmonella typhimurium strains TA100 and TA1535 in the presence of
metabolic activation (S9 mix) but not in TA98 or TA1538 with or without S9 mix.(54)
Zingerone was found to be non-mutagenic in all four strains with or
without S9 mix, and was reported to suppress mutagenic activity of gingerol and
shogaol. Ginger juice has been reported to exhibit antimutagenic activity,
whereas mutagenic activity has been described for 6-gingerol in the presence of
known chemical mutagens.(55) It was suggested that certain mutagens
may activate the mutagenic activity of 6-gingerol so that it is not suppressed
by antimutagenic components present in the juice.(55)
CONTRA-INDICATIONS, WARNINGS
Drug interactions In view of the documented pharmacological actions
of ginger, the potential for preparations of ginger to interfere with other
medicines administered concurrently, particularly those with similar or
opposing effects, should be considered. Ginger has been reported to possess
both cardiotonic and antiplatelet activity in vitro and hypoglycaemic activity
in in vivo studies. An oleo-resin component, 6-shogaol has been reported to affect
blood pressure (initially decrease then increase) in vivo. The clinical
significance of these findings, if any, is unclear. Pregnancy and lactation Ginger
is reputed to be an abortifacient (G30) and utero-activity has been documented
for a related species. Doses of ginger that greatly exceed the amounts used in
foods should not be taken during pregnancy or lactation.
REFERENCE
Al
S. 2016. Healing
Herbs of Paradise. Wellness
Research & Consulting, Inc. 11905 Southern Blvd..
Barnes, J., Anderson, L. A., and Phillipson, J. D. 2007. Herbal
Medicines Third Edition.
Pharmaceutical
Press. Auckland and London.
Duke, J. A. with Mary
Jo Bogenschutz-Godwin, Judi duCellier, Peggy-Ann K. Duke. 2002. Handbook of Medicinal Herbs 2nd Ed.
CRC Press LLC. USA.
Duke, J. A. with Mary
Jo Bogenschutz-Godwin, Judi duCellier, Peggy-Ann K. Duke. 2003. Handbook of Medicinal Spices. CRC
Press LLC. USA.
Kraft,
K and Hobbs, C. 2004 . Pocket Guide to Herbal Medicine.
Thieme. Stuttgart New York.
Linda
S-Roth. 2010. Mosby’s Handbook Of Herbs &
Natural Supplements, Fourth Edition.
Mosby Elsevier. USA.
Longe,
J. L. 2005. The Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine. Second Edition. Vol.
2 (D-K). Thomson Gale. USA.
Ross, I. A. 2005. Medicinal
Plants of the World Vol. 3. Chemical Constituents, Traditional and Modern
Medical Uses. Human Press. Totowa, New Jersey.
Quave, C. L. 2013. Medicinal
Plant Monographs. Emory University. Spring.
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